Oops We’re Unarmed

Last updated: 200813…220616

The best indicator that the grappling rules in 1e are terrible is the number of times they’ve changed. The DMG, OA, UA, Dragon #61, Dragon #83. Every other edition of D&D also includes a different system for unarmed combat— sometimes more than one system in the same book! Almost all have detailed tables to represent variables. And all the systems are terrible (explaining why there’s a never-ending stream of them). I spent years trying to tweak one system or the other to arrive at satisfactory results—all failures. Every use of a system required major revisions.

I finally gave up and created my own. The foundation of the system is: what happens when a large body of kobolds attacks a 10th level fighter unarmed, with the expected result of, “the fighter loses.” Alone, the fighter is screwed, but it takes time—time for allies to come to your aid without certain death. That said, allies need to do something, causing urgency. There’s a lot of math, and code, analyzing the associated variables of hat outcome, tweaking calculations to be additive (people do addition faster than subtraction).

This system intentionally removes a bunch of factors. Take size as an example. If a big and small person are fighting, the small person should be likely to get away, right? Then again, if a big person grabs a small person, they should be more successful—enough of a wash to make inclusion not valuable enough. Many of the unarmed systems use AC, but why is someone in leather easier to grab than someone in mail? In a bar, why is a 10th level fighter disproportionately vulnerable?

The below system takes into account the character’s (and monster’s) ability, as well as Strength/Dexterity, without those factors being overwhelming. Each PC has a predetermined number based on THAC0. Monsters use their THAC0. The PC(s) and monster roll d20 (or d30), add their score, with the lowest total indicating success. Done. While an opposed heck, it’s still in the context of AD&D combat. Each round both sides have the opportunity to change things. The simplicity means applicability to a wide range of circumstance.

We use the same mechanic for related unarmed combat situations: Overrun, Rush, Disarm, Pummel, Drag, and Shove.

On to the details …

Close Combat (Unarmed)

Close Combat Actions use contested Close Combat Checks (CCCs) to determine success, comparing the CCC scores between the attacker(s) and defender(s). Close Combat can’t occur against opponents disparate by more than one size. Close Combat Actions cannot be combined with Weapon Actions.

The Non-Weapon Score (NWS) modifier is added to the CCC, and can be calculated in advance:

Base THAC0
-DEX Reaction/Attacking bonus (Monsters vary based on AC)

OR (depending on which is better, does not aggregate)

-To Hit STR bonus

Add the following modifiers when engaged in CC:

+4 vs. Multiple Attackers in Unarmed Combat
+1/opponent
+1 for each opponent’s leg beyond two (or +2 for zero legs)

CCC: die + NWS + modifiers, Low to succeed

Close Combat Actions (normally d20):

Overrun: One or more characters attempting to push through one or more opponents. Each “line” of opponents counts as one “opponent”. One CCC roll is made for each “line” to pass through, +1 (cumulative) for each successive “line” tried on the same round. Any following character must also succeed on a CCC each attempt, or get left behind.

Rush: Push the opponent backwards 5’ + 1’ for each point of difference. Add +1 for each “line” of opponent.

Disarm: Modified by +8 for each Defender’s hand. Permits Save vs. Petrification.

Unarmed Combat (uses d30): Up to six Attackers can attempt Unarmed Combat, modified by size (smaller than the Defender counts half, larger than the Defender counts double). An armed Defender may make a single free attack when an unarmed attack is attempted; success does not foil assistance of that individual attacker. A successful CCC indicates the Attacker and Defender are Engaged. Once Engaged and beyond:

Combatants cannot move, fight other opponents, be safely targeted by missile weapons, or cast spells (unless Verbal only), and are limited to weapons of small size after the first round of combat;
Combatants gain no defending DEX AC bonus vs. non-Engaged melee attackers;
Combatants can make one Unarmed Combat Action (as an CCC) each round, including the first:
- Incapacitate (EGPH):
  1. Grapple: Take an Engaged defender to the ground/ grab them. If grappling an opponent that makes multiple, separate attacks, the grappler can neutralize one of those attacks.
  2. Pin a Grappled defender. Pinned characters are +4 To Hit by other (non-Engaged) attackers. A Pinned defender automatically goes last when comparing Initiative. When Pinned, the only possible action is attempt to Escape. A character pinned from the beginning to the end of a round is Held, and helpless (unable to defend themselves or react in any productive way).
  3. Escape: Success decreases a Pin to Grapple, a Grappled to Engaged, or Engaged to Breaking Free. Those who break free may not move away that round.
- Pummel: Additional attacks can Pummel with fist or small object, even when Engaged. Damage of STR bonus + (d2 vs. small/medium, d3 vs. large, or a small weapon).
- Drag: Drag/Move a Grappled defender 1”.
- Shove: Shove a Grappled defender 5’ away or knock them down, and disengage.

Two opponents fighting check each round. The attacker trying to Pin the opponent, success moving them closer. The defender trying to escape each success moving them farther from being pinned.

Appendix A—d30

So why d30 for unarmed combat where everything else is d20?

When adding modifiers to a roll the outcome is affected by how small the die. A +1 bonus on a d6 is more significant than a +1 bonus on a d20. To generate the appropriate variability in the roll, a d30 lets you have +1 bonuses without the same level of significance for a d10 or d20.

The problem was that a +1 cumulative effect was too weak, and a +2 cumulative effect was too strong. The d30 drops it back into the sweet spot.

Bibliography

TSR 2011, Dungeon Masters Guide [1e], 1979.
Dragon Magazine, Issue 61, “Without Any Weapons,” May, 1982.
R-4, Doc’s Island, p. 14, 1983. [Unarmed combat]
Dragon Magazine, Issue 83, “How to Finish Fights Faster,” March 1984.

The (Sea) Voyage Continues

One of my campaigns continues to travel by ship (although not the original!), which leads to a continuing sea of questions. I also realized a number of consolidated references conflicted; I’ve smoothed out those sections as best I can.

While using resources from all over, these rules hew as closely as I can to core AD&D rules, merging other resources in as necessary, to provide the closest thing I can to smooth sailing for AD&D nautical adventures.

Most current version: Seafaring (PDF)

Oops I’m Encumbered

Last updated: 190811..240121

“as the main purpose of adventuring is to bring back treasure, provision for carrying out a considerable amount of material must also be made.”

I’ve talked about encumbrance before, as its very complexity begs simplicity. But it’s time for a deeper dive. Encumbrance is, generally, the weight and bulkiness of a particular adventurer’s possessions (armor, weapons, equipment, etc.). Yet for all the importance, multiple contradictions, gaps, and invalid examples exist in the AD&D encumbrance system. How much can a pack carry? What effects does armor have on encumbrance? Even the very terms and ranges of encumbrance are inconsistent.

The following are defined as exceptions to encumbrance: one set of clothing, thieves picks & tools (or any small object as the only thing carried), normal spell material components, and a helmet (for a character not wearing armor).

Weight

Encumbrance is defined as a combination of the weight AND the bulkiness. Let’s look at the backpack: capable of holding 40 pounds (400 gp), and 400 encumbrance (full or empty). On the surface, that sounds great. Simple. But encumbrance is weight and bulkiness. And nothing is has more weight, and less bulk, than gold.

The standard for encumbrance is 10 gp = 1 pound = 10 encumbrance. “Weight” is often used as if it is interchangeable with “encumbrance”, yet encumbrance is specifically defined as the combined weight and relative bulkiness. Items more bulky than gold (isn’t everything?) are defined as two to five times more encumbering, depending on their bulk. In other words, each item needs to have two values: weight in gp, and encumbrance in gp.

As a rule of thumb, any non-bulky item can be assigned an encumbrance value equal to, or only slightly greater than, its weight in gold pieces; a bulky object should be given an encumbrance value of at least two or three times its weight; and a very bulky object should have an encumbrance value of at least five times its weight.

From the Players Handbook (p. 101):

Encumbrance	Definition	Movement
normal gear	about 35# and no great bulk	12″ – subject can run quickly
heavy gear	armor and/or equipment of about 70# or fairly bulky	9″ – subject can make a lumbering run
very heavy gear	armor and/or equipment of 105# and bulky (such as plate armor)	6″- subject can trot for short distances
encumbered	armor and/or equipment over 105# weight and/or (very) bulky	3″ to 4″- no trotting possible

The PHB doesn’t explicitly define the full weight ranges for encumbrance. With 150# (1500 encumbrance) defined as the maximum a character can carry, and given that “Encumbered” is “over 105#”, the ranges are: 1051-1500 (encumbered), 701-1050 (very heavy), 351-700 (heavy), and 350 or less (normal).

The labels are fuzzy—isn’t someone who is not encumbered, unencumbered? DSG uses the same labels for encumbrance, but adds “Unencumbered / No Gear”, and often (but not always) uses the label of “fully encumbered” for the upper range. WSG redefines the labels and defines the ranges: 90-350 (Light), 351-700 (Moderate), 701-1050 (Heavy), and 1051-1500 (Severe), and defines “not encumbered” as less than the lower figure given for light encumbrance. OA simplifies that as a human carrying up to the listed weight can move 12″ per round, with each additional 350 coins (35 lbs.) slowing the character by 25% (3″ per round for a human).

Just to make sure things remain complicated, when defining the thief-acrobat, UA adds the term “body-associated weight/encumbrance” to refer specifically to the clothing, accessories, armor, and weapons of the character, but specifically not to include a backpack. Should a backpack be included, the character adds “Additional (carried) weight/encumbrance”.

That gives us a revised table of:

Encumbrance	Armor & Equipment	Bulk	Movement
not/unencumbered (no gear)	0-89	none	12″ – run quickly
normal (light gear)	90-350	no significant bulk	12″ – run quickly
moderate (gear)	351-700	fairly bulky	9″ – a lumbering run
heavy (heavy gear)	701-1050	bulky	6″- trot for short distances
severe (fully encumbered)	1051-1500	very bulky	3″ to 4″- no trotting possible

Strength specifically states that only those with exceptional strength increase the weight a character can carry without penalty for encumbrance, but later defines the weight allowance of non-exceptional strength as not incurring a movement penalty.

Continuing the AD&D usage of examples that actually aren’t examples, the Strength example in the PHB uses 500 (50#) as the baseline for Strength 8-11 characters without encumbrance. That’s overruled by every other source.

Bulk, and Armor

One of the worst culprits for encumbrance confusion is armor:

PHB, p. 36: “Magic armor negates weight, so that movement does not consider any encumbrance from magic armor.”
DMG, p. 27: “The encumbrance factor for armor does not consider weight alone; it also takes into account the distribution of the weight of the armor and the relative mobility of the individual wearing the protective material.”
DMG, p. 28: “When magic armor is worn, assume that its properties allow movement at the next higher base rate and that weight is cut by 50%. Magic shields are no less weighty than their non-magical counterparts, but they are non-bulky with respect to encumbrance.”
DMG, p. 164: “For game purposes all magical armor should be considered as being virtually weightless—equal to normal clothing, let us assume. This gives characters so clad a base movement speed equal to an unarmored man. Magic shields, however, weigh the same as a normal shield of the same size.”
DMG, p. 27: Scale mail is fairly bulky (normally move 9″), yet a base movement of 6″.
DMG, p. 27: Banded mail is bulky, yet permits a base movement of 9″.
Dragon Magazine #136 states, “Chain mail is fairly bulky even when magical, and thus negates the barbarian’s full bonus.”
R-4 (Doc’s Island): “Non-magical metal armor certainly causes a character to sink immediately, and even magical armor causes encumbrance.“

What a mess of contradictions. In the PHB magic armor weight hinders movement (not bulk), despite that bulk of armor affects movement in the PHB Encumbrance section. The DMG on p. 164 equates magic armor weight to movement. The DMG explicitly defines magic armor as weightless for purposes of movement, and also as a weight of 50%!

Scale mail is only fairly bulky, yet has a base movement of 6″? This contradiction can be only be resolved by considering weight being an additional factor. 40# moves scale mail up to the next weight class of encumbrance (of > 35#), normally reducing movement. The movement for “fairly” bulky would also normally be 9″. In this case the movement rate for scale mail is decreased twice—once for the bulk, and once for the weight. One could assume magic scale mail (only 20# at half weight) would then be a movement of 12″.

UA adds field and full plate, both also fairly bulky, and also with a base move of 6″. Another case where the bulk of the armor doesn’t explain the movement until you consider that the weight is > 35#.

Then there’s banded mail. Banded mail is bulky (normally a move of 6″), yet has a move of 9″. Why?

There is no way to resolve these contradictions—each DM will have to choose their own path. Encumbrance is defined as the weight and bulkiness of an adventurer’s armor, but most adventurers will, early on, have magical armor. Much depends on whether the DM wants to completely remove the impact of armor on movement and Surprise.

I prefer the definition on DMG, p.28: assume that magic armor allows movement at the next higher base rate and that weight is cut by 50%, but leave the actual bulk unchanged for other effects. That’s more consistent with the defined impact on swimming, where any character wearing magic armor will be encumbered and the only stroke possible will be the dog paddle. Also characters encumbered with more than about 20 pounds of gear will be forced to walk on the floor of the ocean, lake, river, or whatever. It also means encumbrance remains a factor once a party has magic armor.

Armor Alternate

Armor makes everything more confusing by having a bulk rating, and a weight (where encumbrance is supposed to be the combination of bulk and weight!), but no actual encumbrance number. There’s a reason for that—armor is treated as more encumbering than its weight! Take plate mail as an example. Plate mail is bulky, restricting movement as if it had an encumbrance of 701+. The obvious reason for this is so the character can carry more, but not have their Strength score override encumbrance providing even characters in plate mail with a movement of 12″.

If having a separate limiter on armor grates on your sense of propriety, there’s another way to look at armor and encumbrance. Create an encumbrance value for all the armor types, taking into account the weight and bulkiness to reflect the limit on movement:

Armor Type	Bulk	Weight	Encumbrance
BANDED	bulky	35#+	700
CHAIN	fairly	30#+	350
CHAIN, ELFIN	non-	15#	150
LEATHER	non-	15#	150
PADDED	fairly	10#	350
PLATE (MAIL)	bulky	45#	700
RING	fairly	25#	350
SCALE	fairly	40#	350
SHIELD, LARGE	bulky	10#	700
SHIELD, SMALL	non-	5#	50
SHIELD, SMALL, WOOD	non-	3#	30
SPLINT	bulky	40#	700
STUDDED (LEATHER)	fairly	20#	350

The plus is you no longer have to apply a separate limiter to movement for armor. The change removes the limiter for armor, but the PC will be able to carry less, but move faster if they have the Strength to carry the armor. You can then simply halve the encumbrance value for magic armor.

Movement

Movement emphasizes that there are two facets to encumbrance: weight, and bulk. If either (or both) exceed their limit, movement is reduced.

Strength can modify that effect, although exactly how is conflicted. The description for strength says that for characters with exceptional strength (18/xx), the strength bonus increases the weight the character is able to carry without penalty for encumbrance (implying that for those without an exceptional strength bonus, the bonus will not increase the weight a character can carry without impacting their movement). Yet in the actual definition of weight allowance, clearly the weight allowance affects movement for all Strength scores:

If a character could normally carry 500 gold pieces without encumbrance, but the character had strength of 17 instead of the normal 8-11 range, 1,000 gold pieces could be carried without incurring movement penalty.

Even that example is screwed up—a character can’t carry 500 gp without affecting their encumbrance. In the normal 8-11 range a character can only carry up to 350 gp before affecting their encumbrance, so a Strength of 17 would only increase their limit to 850 gp before incurring a movement penalty.

Other Effects

Translating for the vagaries of vocabulary, besides movement rate, the degree of encumbrance has the following other effects:

Fully encumbered creatures gain no DEXTERITY AC bonus (or are 1 AC worse, if they have no bonus to lose).
Fully encumbered creatures are +2 AC.
Fully encumbered creates cannot search for secret doors, try to pick a lock, or other such activities.
Fully encumbered creatures are not allowed to charge.
Fully encumbered creatures underwater are performing strenuous exercise. The number of rounds they can hold their breath are cut in half.
Moderately encumbered gain no Dex Reaction bonus to Surprise.
Heavily encumbered characters are one segment slower when Surprised.
Fully encumbered characters are two segments slower when Surprised.
A lightly encumbered character can climb any slope (but not a cliff face) at their full normal climbing rate.
Only not encumbered characters can climb a cliff face (a thief or character with mountaineering).
Heavily or moderately encumbered creatures cannot climb anything other than a gentle or moderate slope that is either non-slippery or slightly slippery, and do so at one-half of his normal climbing rate (WSG).
Fully encumbered creatures cannot climb anything other than a gentle slope that is either non-slippery or slightly slippery, and does so at one-half of his normal climbing rate (WSG).

If a character has a chance to take a large breath of air, and does not perform strenuous exercise while holding his breath, he can hold his breath for a number of rounds equal to his Constitution Score, rounded up. Nonstrenuous exercise includes such activities as normal movement, searching for secret doors, trying to pick a lock, or other such activities. A character cannot be fully encumbered while performing any of these functions. Continuous climbing, swimming against a strong current, and moving while severely encumbered are examples of strenuous activity.

To avoid the risk of fatigue, a character must rest for two consecutive turns after four turns of strenuous activity. If the character chooses not to rest, he must make a Constitution Check after exerting himself for six consecutive turns. Failure on this check indicates that he is fatigued; success indicates that he can remain active for at least five more turns. At the end of those five turns, the character must make another successful Constitution Check to keep going. Every time a check is successful, the time until the next required check is reduced by one turn (to a minimum of one turn). A character with an extremely high constitution may be able to keep performing a strenuous activity for several hours, but the odds will eventually catch up with him.

Clothing

Very cold clothing has en encumbrance value equivalent to that of plate mail (bulky, 450 gp), and an outfit of such clothing will cost about 15 gp.

Cold clothing has an encumbrance value equivalent to that of ring mail (fairly bulky, 250 gp), and an outfit of such clothing will cost about 7 SP.

Moderate clothing may have no encumbrance value at all (if the Dungeon Master considers it to be the same as a character’s normal attire), or may be considered equivalent to leather armor (non-bulky, 150 gp) if the clothing is relatively heavy.

Free Action: The wearer of this ring can move and otherwise operate as if he was not encumbered, unless he is actually severely encumbered, in which case he can operate as if moderately encumbered. Wearing this ring does not enable a character to carry more encumbrance than he can normally; if such an attempt is made, the power of the ring is negated until the wearer rids himself of the excess baggage. The ring does not change the character’s actual encumbrance value, so that if he is astride a mount, his presence has its normal effect on the animal’s ability to carry encumbrance.

Bulk

As an illustration of this point, consider a prominent example from the game rules: A pack of standard rations, designed to feed one human for one week, has an encumbrance value of 200 gp. Assume that the actual weight of the package is 14 pounds (140 gp), and the other 60 gp of its encumbrance value accounts for its bulkiness.

Thus, the minimum daily requirement of standard rations is two pounds. Compare this with a pack of iron rations, having an encumbrance value of 75 gp. Of this amount, perhaps as little as 5 gp accounts for the bulk of the package (since the food is more concentrated and occupies much less space). The other 70 gp, or 7 pounds, is the actual weight of the package, and therefore the minimum daily requirement of iron rations is one pound.

Water has an encumbrance value of 50 gp per gallon, plus an extra 50 gp for every three gallons being transported in a single container.

Solutions

So what do we take away from that survey?

Gold has 10-20 times the density of everything else (water, stone). Yet that’s assuming a solid bar of gold. Stacked coins have a lower density, and loose coins a lower density still. For simplicity, consider that loose coins are the baseline. Gold bars are 20:1, gold coins are 10:1

things that will float (solid = 150 encumbrance/ pound (solid) )= two-thirds x
water (solid) = 8 gallons in 1 cubic foot = 100 encumbrance/ pound (solid)= 1x
stone (solid)= 3x = = 67 encumbrance / pound

Loose coins of slightly different diameters don’t vary much by encumbrance. Assume everything is leaving space by 2x for being loose?

Per pound:

2/3x = 150 encumbrance solid, 300 encumbrance (loose @ 2x), 225 encumbrance (loose@1.5x)
1x (water) = 100 encumbrance solid, 200 encumbrance (loose @2x), 150 encumbrance (loose @ 1.5x)
3x = 67 encumbrance (solid), 135 encumbrance (loose @2x), 100 encumbrance (loose @ 1.5x)
5x = 20 encumbrance (solid), 40 encumbrance (loose @2x)
10x = 10 encumbrance
10x = 10 (loose) gp = 1 pound = 10 encumbrance = 10x
20x = 20 (bars) gp = 2 pounds = 5 encumbrance = 20x
15 (stacked) gp = 1.5 pounds = 7.5 encumbrance
Every item needs both a weight, and an encumbrance value. Every container (backpack, pouch) needs both an encumbrance capacity, and a weight capacity.
350 encumbrance is not encumbering.

It’s clear there are slight exceptions based on the specifics of the encumbrance value of an item. The weight of a standard book of median size is 150 gold pieces (adjusted upward or downward for varying sizes). The encumbrance value of such a book is equal to three times its weight (450 gp or thereabouts), although it is correct to assume that a volume will fit within an otherwise empty backpack or large sack. Traveling Spell book: The weight of such a book is approximately 30 gold pieces, and encumbrance roughly 60 gp.

The backpack has a listed capacity of 400 gp, which is typically considered both weight and encumbrance. Yet, there’s a lot more room in a pack for items that are less dense than gold!

Bibliography

TSR 2010, Players Handbook, 1978.
TSR 2011, Dungeon Masters Guide [1e], 1979.
Dragon Magazine #50, The Ups and Downs of Flying High, 1981.
TSR 2018, Oriental Adventures, 1985.
TSR 2019, Dungeoneer’s Survival Guide, 1986.
TSR 2020, Wilderness Survival Guide, 1986.
Dragon Magazine #136, Sage Advice, p. 50, August, 1988.
R-4, Doc’s Island, p. 14, 1983. [magical armor encumbrance]

Taking Weapons on the Plane

Last Updated: 200704

According to the MoTP (and other resources) the magical bonus on weapons and armor can vary when a character travels across the planes, generally less by one for each plane removed from the point of origin. Generally, the planes are laid out:
Inner Planes (and Demi-Planes) <> Ethereal <> Prime <> Astral <> Outer Planes.

So a +3 sword created on Prime would be only +1 on the Outer and Inner Planes. All well and good. But exactly where was that item created? If the character has a +3 sword on Prime, but it was created on the Ethereal Plane, then the sword would be +4 when the character adventures to the Ethereal.

While it’s easy enough to assume all magic items are created on Prime, certainly some weapons are created on the Outer Planes (given the many legends of the gods creating weapons and armor and providing them to mortals). To truly account for that, each magic item should be checked when the characters travel to another plane to see if it gets a boost instead of a penalty. There is, of course, no table for that (I don’t think).

At a simple level, the question is which of those 5 “levels” of plane the item was created. Prime is obviously the baseline. Few items would be created on the Ethereal (and even fewer on the Inner planes). Almost no items would be created on the Astral (given the time constraints there). Most non-Prime items would likely be created on one of the Outer planes.

That leads us to a table something like (d20):
1: Inner. If a 1 is rolled, 50% of those items were created on the Ethereal.
3-17: Prime
18-20: Outer. If a 20 is rolled, 10% of those items were created on Astral.

If an item was created on an Inner or Outer Plane, the specific plane then needs to be determined. For the Outer Planes, determining the plane is as simple as using the Astral Color Pool table. For the Inner Planes, the table for the Curtain of Vaporous Color can be used (readily converted to a table, as it doesn’t include one).

Oops They’re Regenerating!

Last updated: 190623…221006

The question arose of exactly how one kills a troll:

“To kill a troll, the monster must be burned or immersed in acid, any separate pieces being treated in the same fashion or they create a whole again in 3-18 melee rounds.”

How exactly does that work? Does the troll only need to be burned after it reaches 0 hit points? Must all damage dealt be from fire? Will fire damage not regenerate? Does other damage therefore regenerate? As with most things AD&D, the rules don’t dig into the implementation.

A review of regeneration leads only to more questions! All regeneration ability is not the same. Regeneration can include the recovery of [n] hit points, restoring life from death, the regrowth of lost limbs, and the animation of severed limbs, although few creatures (or items) combine all of these powers. Given that specific facets of regeneration are specified for individual creatures, the assumption is that regeneration abilities not included in a description are not in effect.

The recovery of hit points via regeneration is represented by number of hit points recovered per round (or turn). In rare cases regeneration prevents death (or at least restores the creature to life), but for the vast majority of cases, regeneration begins (or is triggered) when the creature is wounded, and ends upon the creature’s death (0 hit points). The regrowth of appendages typically takes days, and is generally independent of hit points. In some cases regeneration includes the animation of lost limbs, which can either slither back to their host or, in some cases, attack independently!

Regeneration can also include specific limits. Some creatures don’t regenerate for [n] rounds after being wounded. Others can’t regenerate damage from a specific source (fire, acid, etc.), or require specific circumstances to regenerate (e.g., immersed in water, or in lava). Other things that can affect regeneration (creature-dependent) include: if immersed in water, fire, lightning; acid; silver; holy water; holy weapons.

Rates of regeneration:

Regenerate 7 hit points per round: Solar
Regenerate 4 hit points per round: Planetar
Regenerate 3 hit points per round: Vampire, Ixitxachitl (vampiric), Troll*, Revenant*, Slaad (Red)
Regenerate 2 hit points per round: Jubilex, Pit fiends, Son of Kyuss*, Ice Troll*, Mephit*, Giant/Ice Troll*
Regenerate 1 hit point per round: Ice devils, Lemures, Imp, Quasit, Pazuzu, Bael,Titivilus, Ogre Magi*, Tarrasque*, Abishai*, Nupperibo*, Giant Two-headed Troll*
Regenerate d12 hit points per turn: Amon
Regenerate 3 hit points per turn: Mycadaemon
Regenerate 2 hit points per turn: Glasya
Regenerate 1 hit point per turn: Shade, Willow, Black
Regenerate up to 20 hit points per day: Nabassu

* With conditions

Magic and Regeneration

Ioun Stone (pearly white): Regenerates 1 hp of damage/turn. Does not restore from death, nor regrow limbs.

Flame Tongue: +2 vs. Regenerating Creatures: +2 versus a creature with any facet of regeneration. Given the explicit flame on the blade, creatures with the ability to regenerate but affected by fire would be affected by this blade.

Regenerate (spell):
“body members (fingers, toes, hands, feet, arms, legs, tails, or even the heads of multi-headed creatures), bones, or organs will grow back. The process of regeneration requires but 1 round if the member(s) severed is (are) present and touching the creature, 2-8 turns otherwise.”
Does not include the regeneration of hit points, limbs reattaching, or restoring life after death.

Regenerate (Major Artifact Benign Power): “2 hp/turn (but not if killed)”.
Does not include the regeneration of limbs, or restoring hit points after death.

Mighty Servant of Leuk-O: ‘regenerates (self-repairs) 2 points of damage per round to itself.” If the device is destroyed, regeneration will stop.

Ring of Regeneration:
“The standard regeneration ring restores 1 hit point of damage (and will replace lost limbs or organs eventually also) per turn. It will bring its wearer back from death (but if poison is the cause, the saving throw must be made or else the wearer dies again from the poison still in his or her system). Only total destruction of all living tissue by fire or acid or similar means will prevent regeneration.’

If a character wears a Ring of Regeneration, are they killed but restored to life, or never actually killed? It’s a subtle but important distinction. Clerics changing alignment are killed by their deity. When a character is drained of all energy levels, he or she might become an undead monster of the same sort which killed him or her. The Censer of Summoning Hostile Elementals could burn until the summoner is killed. Will the Ring restore them to life? The DMG states: “Any character killed and subsequently restored to life by means of a spell or device, other than a ring of regeneration…” implying that a killed character can be restored to life by the Ring of Regeneration. The PHB, on the other hand, states: “Certain magical means will prevent actual death, particularly a ring of regeneration”, so a Ring of Regeneration’s effect is to prevent death.

After all that study, still no closer to determining the specifics of how to kill a troll!

Looking sideways at BEMCI, the regenerating hydra cannot regenerate damage done by fire, and trolls cannot regenerate damage from fire or acid, implying they regenerate all other damage. In 2e, fire and acid damage cannot be regenerated, because that damage is more extensive than normal wounds. Also in 2e, only total destruction of all living tissue by fire or acid or similar means will prevent regeneration for the Ring of Regeneration.

Returning to 1e, the giant troll—which does not regenerate as well as a normal troll—must receive at least 10 hit points of damage by fire; if this condition is not met and the giant troll is reduced to a single hit point, any further damage on it has no effect save to negate regeneration.

Conclusions

Regeneration heals damage. Regeneration won’t restore life unless the associated features of that specific regeneration include that ability. Trolls have that ability. Even total dismemberment will not slay a troll, for its parts will slither and

scuttle together, rejoin, and the troll will arise whole and ready to continue—a troll will not cease to attack even reduced to 1 hit point. For the giant troll, even if reduced to a single hit point, any further damage on it has no effect save to negate regeneration.

Given that giant trolls require at least 10 hp of the total damage to be fire to be killed, and their regeneration is weaker than the standard troll, the standard troll requires all hit point damage to be by fire or acid before it is killed (fire/acid damage won’t regenerate; non-fire damage will regenerate). While hit points are an abstraction, for regeneration, only damage caused by fire and acid (or other sources depending on the monster) causes actual, permanent, damage unless specified otherwise. The rest can be regenerated.

What happens when the players later want to heal a troll is a question for later …

Appendix A: Monsters and their Regeneration

Aleax: regenerates after being first wounded; the round after the wound is taken, it regenerates 1 hit point, the next round 2 hit points, then 4 hit points, then 8 hit points and so on until it is killed (reduced to zero hit points or below) or all hits are restored. If it is then hit again, the progression starts again at 1 hit point;
Creatures from the Lower Planes: Regeneration base is 1 hit point per turn, with exceptional creatures having a maximum of 1 per round.
Abishai: regenerate at the rate of 1 point per round, unless struck by silver, holy water, or holy magic weapons.
Achaierai: An injured leg will regenerate fully in about two days but the birds do not possess other regenerative powers and a leg which has been completely lost will not be re-grown.
Beholder: lost eyestalks will eventually grow back (1 week per lost member).
Froghemoth: Injured members heal or regenerate in 2-5 weeks.
Grell: Any hit on a tentacle will render it inoperative (though if the creature survives, the tentacle will regenerate in 1-2 days) but the damage is not subtracted from the creature’s hit points—only by hitting the body can the grell be damaged in the usual way.
Hydra (Lernean): Each time a head is cut off (or killed), it grows two new ones in d4 melee rounds unless fire is applied.
Mephit: Regenerate 2 hit points per round (if in contact with the lava).
Nonafel: Regenerate 9 hit points each round (one for each of 9 offspring).
Nupperibos regenerate at 1 hit point per round. If a holy object (water, weapon) is used against them, regeneration is not possible.
Ogre magi: 1 hit point per melee round (lost members must be reattached to regenerate).
Portuguese man-o-war: Tentacles will regenerate in several days.
Revenant: Limbs function independently. Limbs will slither back together. Regenerate 3 hit points per round after death, except by burning. Immune to acid and gas.
Slaad (Red): Regenerate while still alive at the rate of 3 hit points per melee round.
Ssendem (Slaad Lord): 3 hit point per melee round while alive.
Son of Kyuss: 2 hit points per round; its limbs will regenerate if severed, like those of a troll. Even after ‘death’ this process will continue,, so the only way of destroying these creatures is by fire, lightning, acid or the application of holy water to their wounds.
Spectator: Eyes regenerate in 1 day.
Tiamat: Head(s) replaced the following day.
Tarrasque: 1 hit point per round. Even the slightest piece will regenerate and be restored completely.
Thessalhydrae: Fringe heads regenerate in 12 days.
Troll: 3 melee rounds after being damaged, repairs damage at 3 hit points per round; this regeneration includes the rebonding of severed members. The loathsome members of a troll have the ability to fight on even if severed from the body; a hand can claw or strangle, the head bite, etc. Total dismemberment will not slay a troll, for its parts will slither and scuttle together, rejoin, and the troll will arise whole and ready to continue combat. To kill a troll, the monster must be burned or immersed in acid, any separate pieces being treated in the same fashion or they create a whole again in 3-18 melee rounds.
Troll (Giant): Before a giant troll can be killed, at least 10 hit points of damage must be inflicted on it by fire. If this condition is not met and the giant troll is reduced to a single hit point, any further damage on it has no effect save to negate regeneration.
Troll (Giant Two-headed): They regenerate as do trolls but at the rate of 1 hit point every melee round, though they cannot re-bond severed limbs.
Troll (Ice): regenerative powers of a normal troll but at a rate of 2 hit points per melee round, so long as the regenerating members can immerse themselves in water. A severed limb can move a distance of 30′ in search of water and will always move towards water if there is some in range.
Troll (Spirit): It regenerates as a troll, and at the same rate (3 hit points per round).
Troll (Freshwater/Saltwater or Scrag): Regenerate as trolls but only when immersed in water.
Wolf-in-Sheep’s-Clothing: can regenerate appendages in 1-4 weeks.

Think of the Wonderful Things!

Last updated: 190505, …, 260108

While my grounded PCs have interacted with flying creatures, PCs have rarely used even the Fly spell for combat. I’ve previously calculated long-distance movement and flight, but aerial combat is more immediate. The DMG defines aerial combat as, “a swoop and slash, hit-and-run affair,” with specifics for movement and maneuverability for creatures in flight—without detailing melee combat. It’s been obvious that flying creatures could attack while flying, but clearly combat doesn’t happen at Initiative (because creature locations would rarely line up). How complicated is it?

Movement

Each 3” of flying rate equals 1 hex of potential movement. For Movement Class:

Class A (180°) creatures reach full movement in one segment. They can move any direction at any speed every round, and can immediately stop in the air and hover.
Class B (120°) creatures require six segments to reach full speed. That translates to roughly three-quarters normal movement in the first round. Class B creatures require 5 segments to come to a full stop—half movement in a round before a hover. Class B creatures can remain airborne at less than half-speed.
Class C (90°) creatures require a full round to reach full airspeed, translating to half-movement in the first round. For Class C, half-speed is also the minimum to maintain flight, with no ability to hover. Exceptions: The Carpet of Flying is Class C as pertaining to maneuverability, but can hover or move at any desired speed. The Broom of Flying can move at full speed the first round.
Class D (60°) creatures require two rounds to reach full airspeed, or a quarter movement in the first round, and half movement in the second round.
Class E (30°) creatures require four rounds to reach full speed: 1” the first round, a quarter movement in the second round, half movement the third round, and three-quarters movement in the fourth round.

Note: A creature can reach full speed sooner by taking off from a running start.

Movement Modifiers

Movement modifiers are cumulative, but if a Movement Class modifies to worse than Class E, creatures still function as Class E. When speed modifies Movement Class, only adjust turn radius (e.g., a Class C creature moving at half speed adjusted to Class B still cannot hover or accelerate faster).

Movement Speed

Winged creatures cannot move less than one-half their normal movement and remain airborne. The Broom of Flying is also explicitly included in this category. Exceptions: Class A/B or when taking off.
Flying creatures climb at one-half, and dive at twice their current movement rate. Fliers of Class B-E climb 1″ for every hex forward (~18%), and dive at 3″:1 hex forward (45%).
- The Broom of Flying climbs (and dives) at 30%, or 2″ for every hex forward.
- The Fly spell permits up to full vertical climb at half movement.
- Eagles and harpies can plummet straight down (6″, 0 hexes) and still pull out or land safely.
Maximum speed decreases for a flying creature carrying more than a normal load—typically 50% (see WSG, p. 47).
- The Broom of Flying can carry 182 pounds at 30″; every additional 14 pounds slows by 1″.

Movement Class

Flying creatures maneuver in 30° or 60° increments per hex, up to their maximum (determined by Movement Class) per round.

Flying creatures moving at half-speed (with a normal load) turn as one class better.
Flying mounts are treated in all respects as one maneuverability class worse (minimum Class E) when carrying equipment and/or mounted (even by a halfling!).
- The Broom of Flying, Wings of Flying, and Magic Carpet are not considered “flying mounts.”

Aerial Melee

Initiative

Grounded PCs can move, or attack, or charge (where charge has implications for AC, To Hit, and Movement). Aerial combat doesn’t work as a hit-and-run affair with standard melee and Initiative rules. In the BtB combat sequence, actions are, in order:

discharge missiles or magical attacks
close to striking range or charge
strike blows with weapons

How does that translate to aerial combat?

Ranged Attacks

Dragons can choose to breathe on an approach and then pass and slash with fang or claw. Given the movement of dragons when considering the range of their breath weapon, this implies dragons can both breathe and melee attack in the same round! Manticores similarly can fling tail spikes the same round they employ their front claws.

Creatures using breath weapons (e.g., dragons, chimerae) have a harder time hitting other flying creatures—moving aerial targets add +2 to their saving throws vs. breath weapons.

For all missiles fired while flying, treat short range as medium (–2 to hit) and medium range as long (–5 to hit). Firing at long range will always miss.

Range to creatures at a different elevation is generally calculated as +1″ for every 1″ of elevation.

Levitating archers strike at a cumulative –1 To Hit (maximum –3). Slinging, casting javelins or spears, or swinging a weapon (such as a sword) will be at double the cumulative minuses “to hit” for archery (i.e., –2, –4, –6). There is no penalty for archery while flying (assuming the archers are hovering—if they are moving, treat as fired missiles), but there are minuses for slinging or swinging weapons—identical to the penalties for archery while levitating.

Melee Attacks

As all creatures are in motion, range attacks must occur prior to any (applicable) melee attack. The number of melee attacks allowed flying creatures each round is typically less than their default. The chimera can use claws or attack with one of its heads. Type 1 Demons can only slash with their rear talons. Giant eagles attack with their talons but not beak. Gargoyles spear with their horn or slash with their claws, but never both. Harpies either use their talons or a weapon. Griffons and hippogriffs attack with their talons or beak. Etc., Etc.

And what of the Fly spell? Well, the Fly spell specifically takes as much concentration as walking. Combat therefore would be much like that of a walking character. Two creatures using Fly can be treated as normal (grounded) movement.

Melee combat occurs between creatures within melee range. As flying creatures can close and attack in the same round, all melee combat works similarly to charge—creatures move on Initiative, yet strike in order of weapons length (ties broken by size, Move, and Movement Class). Creatures with multiple similar attacks (claw/claw) would occur at the same time. Those with multiple attacks per round with the same weapon (such as fighters with more than one attack per round) are likely far from their opponent by their second attack, similar to flying creatures only using one attack form. When making a melee pass, flying creatures don’t expose themselves to a “free” attack, as the attack is part of standard movement.

If a flyer attacks a creature on the ground, it also works much like charge. Both creatures get an attack, and the flyer will complete its movement. An airborne character is +1 “to hit” against an opponent on the ground, or +2 if the attack is made at the end of a dive. A diving creature loses Dexterity AC bonus but inflicts double damage against non-diving targets. This includes attacks on earthbound creatures from a height of greater than 30 feet. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, dive attacks against creatures on the ground end with the flying creature on the ground.

A character on the ground may defend against an attack from above by bracing for the onslaught. If done, and wielding a weapon of at least 6′ in length, the character receives a +4 bonus on their “to hit” roll, but at the same time they forfeits any Dexterity AC bonus. An airborne opponent, noticing this tactic, can choose to pull up and break off his attack, in which case neither combatant will score a hit.

In summary, all melee combat when flying works like charge without a movement increase. If a creature has a separate ranged attack, the range attack can be used when closing for melee. Creatures with multiple melee attacks (claw & bite, for example) can use only one attack form when making a melee pass.

A creature capable of vertical movement from a standing start (Class A/B, or a Fly spell), that starts a round engaged with a grounded creature could also choose to withdraw/fall back from a grounded creature by moving straight up!

Spell Casting

Spell casting while riding a flying mount or Broom at any speed is impossible. Much like the Fly spell, spellcasting is possible from a magic carpet only if hovering or moving slowly (3” or less).

Stamina

For purposes of melee, a creature’s Stamina is unlikely to be relevant, although a few creatures have a Stamina less than or equal to three turns (the boobrie, pteranadon, giant pterosaur, and giant vulture).

Damaged in Flight

Damage eventually forces flying creatures from the sky. Hit points reduced by 50% (75% for feathered creatures) forces a creature to land. Creatures with hit points reduced by 75% (90% for feathered creatures) will plummet from the sky!

Landing

Class A creatures can land anywhere. Most winged creatures need no more space to land than their size, assuming the hex before the landing zone is not higher than their ability to dive (normally 3″).

A creature forced to land slows to at most two-thirds of its movement and loses at least 1″ of altitude per round. If the creature is not flying more than 10″ above the ground and is not somehow forced to remain aloft, it will descend and make a safe landing within the same turn as forced to land. If unable to land within a turn, the creature will plummet.

Falling

When plummeting, the animal will go into a steep dive (WSG). Its rider(s) has an increased chance of falling while performing this maneuver. If a rider does not fall there will still be the sudden stop at the end. A rider who does not have at least their lower body strapped to the mount will be thrown from the mount, suffering 11-40 hit points of damage (3d10+10) from the tumble. Otherwise, for every 1″ of distance the animal plummets, a rider will suffer 1d2 hit points of damage from the buffeting he receives when the animal crashes to a stop, halved for a character with proficiency in airborne riding or for a character securely strapped (upper and lower body) to the back of the mount.

Death

If a flying mount dies, the creature will fall (along with their rider), most likely carrying the rider to their death, especially if the rider is securely strapped onto the mount. If the creature dies close to the ground (~ 20′), an unstrapped character with proficiency in riding the mount could potentially leap from its back and land safely on the ground.

Mounted Falling

A character’s chance of falling while riding an airborne mount is checked at least once every three turns while airborne, beginning the count anew each time the mount lands and takes off. This assumes that the flight is smooth and normal in all respects. If the weather is bad, or the mount is very uncooperative, or if it is abruptly changing direction and speed (such as in a combat or evasion situation), a check may be called for much more frequently—perhaps as often as once per round while the unusual conditions persist.

If a flying mount takes damage that brings it to less than half of its total hit points, the rider must immediately make a check to see the rider falls. Further checks are required every round until the mount is brought to a landing or until it regains enough hit points to put it out of danger.

The base chance of a character falling from his mount is 0%. This assumes that the mount is giving its rider(s) a smooth and level flight at its full normal movement rate. The base chance is modified by any of the following factors:

-200% Rider’s entire body (upper and lower) securely strapped (1 turn/5 rounds)
-150% Rider’s lower body only securely strapped onto mount (5 rounds/2 rounds)
-50% Rider has proficiency in Airborne Riding (on the appropriate creature)
- -84% (with an additional- 1%/level) for Cavaliers (supersedes Airborne Riding)
+50% Rider not strapped onto mount and not holding on with both hands (hands are free or carrying something)
-10% Rider using saddle
-10% Saddle equipped with stirrups.
-02% per each point of rider’s dexterity above 12, and rider’s strength above 12 (considering 18 as maximum)
+02% per each point of rider’s dexterity below 12, and rider’s strength below 12
+20% Mount is carrying more than its normal load limit
+20% Mount is moving faster than full normal movement rate (diving, dodging, performing combat maneuvers, etc.)
+ 10% Mount is not flying level (making sharp turns, loops, etc. Turns greater than 45°) [cumulative?]
+20% Mount is wounded > 50%
+20% Mount’s demeanor is unwilling, and the creature is not charmed, subdued, or similarly influenced.
+20% Inclement weather (sandstorm, heavy precipitation, etc.)
+01% per mph of wind velocity greater than 30 mph

That which can be calculated in advance (Dexterity, mount load, etc.) should be.

The Guts of Flying

Movement

Determine Flyer’s current Hex Movement (MV / 3).
Decide whether to change speed:

Increase speed (Winged creatures moving less than half normal movement must increase speed, or fall)

Class A: Can change speed immediately, up to normal. Move up to 100% any time.
Class B: Can increase speed by 25% of normal immediately. Move 75% on takeoff.
Class C: Can increase speed next round by 100% of normal. Move 50% on takeoff.
Class D: Can increase speed next round by 50% of normal. Move 25% on takeoff, 50% on round 2.
Class E: can increase speed next round by 25% of normal. Move 1”/25%/50%/75% on rounds after takeoff.

Decrease speed

Decelerate up to 100%. If not landing, Class B will still move at least 50% of movement from last round. Winged creatures that are not Class A/B will fall 1″ / round if speed < 50%.

Note: Including acceleration is more complicated than simply choosing speed at the beginning of the round, but not doing so decreases the significance of the movement classes. I don’t use acceleration except at takeoff.

Determine flyer’s turn radius. At normal load, creatures moving at half Hex Movement turn one class better.
On Initiative¹, each Combatant moves their entire movement, and can:

Maneuver	Hex Cost	Forward	Elevation²	Maneuver
Move	1 Hex	1 Hex	–	Can turn 30°\|60°³
Climb	2 Hex	1 Hex	+1″	–
Dive	½ Hex	1 Hex	-3″	–
Land	–	–	0	–
Ranged Attack⁴	–	–	–	None

¹In the case of a tie, current speed, size, and then Movement Class breaks the tie²Broom of Flying is ± 2″, Fly is ± 3″
³Post-movement and not back-to-back—movement must occur between each maneuver.
⁴Cannot Maneuver and ranged attack in the same hex.

Combat

Melee
- Once/round when combatants enter a hex within 10′ elevation (20′ if the attacker is Large)
- Creatures with multiple forms of melee attack can use only one attack form
- The attacker with the longest weapon strikes first
- For melee as the result of a Dive of ≥3″, Charge rules apply (No Dex, To Hit +2, and Damage ×2)
Ranged Combat
- Cannot occur during or after Melee
- Treat Short Range as Medium and Medium as Long
- Cannot Maneuver in the same hex as making a ranged attack
- Range determined between the attacker and defender at the time of the ranged attack
Class A combatants gain multiple attacks (if possible) if they choose to stop in the hex.

Collisions (Optional)

Planes in WWII making head-on attacks sometimes died in head-on collisions. If both opponents are flying, either opponent fumbling could represent a head-on collision. Both opponents would stop moving, and plummet, falling for d4 seconds (falling 3″, 6″, 10″, or 13″), followed by an additional Save vs. Maneuverability. ^*A Save vs. Maneuverability is based on the movement class of the creature, rolling a d6. If the number rolled is equal to or less than the creature’s maneuverability (where Class A is a 1, and Class E is a 5), the fall continues.

Nap-of-the-Earth (Optional)

Near the ground, fliers can collide with things. Boulders, trees, fences, and hills often lie in the flier’s path. Defenders might plant stakes to keep aerial enemies at a higher altitude. When a collision is likely, the airborne character traveling at nap-of-the-earth must roll above his Maneuverability^* on d10 to avoid the crash (with a -1 penalty for every 10″ of movement). For every 10″ of movement, collisions do d6 hp damage to the mount, and half damage to the rider. Unless the rider rolls a result equal to or less than his Dexterity on d20, the rider will be stunned for d8 rounds (no attacks or shield use possible, -4 on saving throws and armor class). This assumes that the rider is tied onto his mount, of course. If a PC is flying under their own power (e.g., using a Fly spell or Potion of Flying), they take full damage.

An intrepid proficient flier can lean down to snatch objects from the ground with a successful Save vs. Maneuverability. To grab an unwilling victim, a grapple roll is required. If the object to be lifted is at least 50% as heavy as the character grabbing it, the character must make an Open Doors roll to avoid taking an additional d6 hp damage from muscle strain and lose whatever they were trying to grab. If not strapped on, a PC making any attempt to grab something from the ground falls off his mount. A character who falls to the ground takes d6 hp damage for every 10″ they are traveling, plus normal falling damage, to a limit of 20d6.

Environment (Optional)

For every 10 mph of wind speed, the movement rate for fliers change by 1” (direction-dependent). Crosswinds blow fliers sideways at a speed of 1” for every 20 mph of wind speed. Additionally, the rider must Save vs. Maneuverability* (at a -1 / 10 mph of wind speed) or lose control, falling for d4 seconds (falling 3″, 6″, 10″, or 13″).

Cumulus clouds usually form at altitudes between 1,000 and 5,000ft. Characters inside a cloud can see only 40’ and are penalized an additional -2 on all missile “to hit” rolls. Every time a character changes direction in a cloud there is a 70% chance that they become lost and proceed in a random direction (limited by Movement Class). All unwrapped items become wet; exposed parchments and papers must save on a roll of 5 or better each turn or become warped and smeared. Invisible creatures are outlined, and can be attacked at -2 instead of the usual -4, and make saving throws with but a +2 bonus.

The time it takes gas-related spells to dissipate is doubled in a cloud. Magical fire-based attacks do 1 HP less per hit die. There is a 20% chance that any electricity-based spell is negated.

Cumulus clouds are created by thermals, and updrafts are always beneath them. Hills create updrafts as well; a 60% chance exists that a given hill produces a thermal. In such a draft, flying creatures may climb at 75% of their normal movement rate (instead of the normal 33% rate), or 2″ for each hex of forward movement.

Air-To-Ground (Alternate System)

2nd Edition offers an alternate abbreviated “Tournament” system, where Class A/B creatures can attack every round, Class C creatures can attack every other round, Class D every three rounds, and Class E every six rounds, a good basis for simpler air-to-ground combat. Initiative is modified by Movement Class.

Appendix A – Encounters

In many ways, aerial encounters are the same for those on the ground, just encountered while flying, taking into consideration the increased visibility of those in the air. When the party is travelling by means of flying, simply use the appropriate OUTDOOR RANDOM MONSTER ENCOUNTERS table. Check at every opportunity (four times in the daylight, twice if flying at night also, or four times if flying at night only), but an encounter occurs only if the creature indicated is able to fly or is actually flying.

Bibliography

TSR 2011, Dungeon Masters Guide [1e], 1979.
Dragon #50, The Ups and Downs of Flying High, 1981. [Includes traits for flying mounts]
Polyhedron #12, “Dispel Confusion”, 1983, p. 10. [weird answers, like +4 to hit for surprise]
TSR 2020, Wilderness Survival Guide [1e], 1986. [Flying mounts]
Dragon #124, Flying the Friendly(?) Skies, 1987. [WSG prequel]
TSR 2100, Dungeon Master Guide [2e], 1995.
Dawn of Emperors [BECMI], 1989. [Detailed aerial combat]

I’m Surprised

Last updated: 180901, … 260502
surprise@corwyn.net
https://dnd.sinister.net

I had abandoned using Surprise as written years ago—so long ago I don’t recall why. I suspect because I tried to make the rules make sense, and as written they don’t (and can’t, there are errors in the early printings of the PHB and DMG!). The rules are also surprisingly (hah!) unclear on who rolls for what effect. Am I rolling for whether I’m surprising or surprised? What if the result is modified?

I’ve recently been inspired to dig into some of the more fiddly AD&D rules, and have been impressed at how well those rules work once I understand them, so I tried Surprise again. That said, I’ve modified the below just a bit to be consistent with the rest of my house rules (see Initiative). I personally limit surprise to a single attack per segment, without stacking, to a maximum of 2 attacks. That’s intentional, otherwise 7th level Elven Ranger catching someone completely flat-footed could gain 10 melee attacks during Surprise (and more extreme examples exist!)

A surprised party is one caught unawares or unprepared by another party (DMG, p. 61, 62). In such circumstances the non-surprised (or less surprised) party has an advantage of “free and unanswered activity to move, attack, flee, etc.,” reflected by free segments of actions against the surprised party prior to rolling initiative. It is possible for both parties to be surprised equally—with Surprise thus having no effect. Parties are unaware of how surprised the other side is.

Prior detection negates the possibility of being surprised. Light can spoil the possibility of surprise for one party. Noise can negate surprise considerations, whether the sound is the normal progress of the party or a fruitless attempt to open a door. A party hearing something at a door (Hear Noise) negates their possibility of surprise. Magical devices can possibly negate surprise by detection of thoughts or intentions. In all such cases, only parties subject to surprise roll to determine surprise (DMG, p. 62). If one party is making considerable noise which is discernible by the other party, the latter will also have the options of fleeing or concealment regardless of Surprise; the former negating the encounter, the latter allowing distance to be 1″ to 4″ before discovery by the noisy party (DMG, p. 62).

For each side, if the chance of surprise exists, a single d6 is rolled to determine whether their entire side is surprised. By default, on a 1 or 2 their side is surprised, for the number of segments equal to the number rolled on the die, otherwise (on 3-6) they are not surprised. If a creature surprises on 4 in 6, it can surprise for up to 4 segments (when their opponent rolls 1-4 on a d6) (PHB, p. 51,103; DMG, p. 62).

If both parties roll results in their range for Surprise, Surprise duration is calculated for one party based on the net of the two Surprise results: “Assume A [surprised on 5 in 6] rolls a 4, so A is surprised for 4 segments unless B rolls a 1, in which case A’s inactive period will be only 3 segments, or if B rolls a 2, in which case A’s surprise will last for only 2 segments (4–1 = 3, 4–2 = 2).” (DMG, p. 62). Only one side will have lost segments (DMG, p. 61, PHB, p. 103). Subtract the segments of surprise from each other, not the dice rolls. Only the non-surprised party can act.

“Complete Surprise” is defined as 2 (or more) segments of surprise [c.f. , MM-Catoblepas; DMG-Crossbow of Speed; PHB-Phantasmal Killer; UA-garrote; MM2-Dracolisk; G1-3, p.12 & 23; S3, p. 13 & 14; and the potential 4 segments of complete surprise for the Aerial Servant (PHB/MM). See Eldrich Wizardry, p.10 for origins of Complete Surprise. The Boalisk prompts “Complete Surprise” on a 1-2; whether the Boalisk rolls a 1 or 2, it will surprise for 2 segments. [I choose to interpret that any surprise ≥ 2 segments is “Complete Surprise” of 2 segments.]

Only once Surprise is completely resolved do both parties roll Initiative.

Encounter Distance

If either or both parties are surprised, the normal underground encounter distance of d6+4″ will typically be only 1″ to 3″, as surprise is normally a factor only in close encounter/underground situations. When outdoors, each segment of surprise reduces the normal encounter distance (6d4″) by 1″ (DMG, p. 49) in addition to free segments of activity. Terrain type will also modify encounter distance:

Scrub	-1 per distance die on all 3’s and 4’s.
Forest	-1 per distance die on all numbers (00’s are possible).
Marsh	-1 per distance die on all 2’s, 3’s, and 4’s.

Illumination or visual capability of the concerned parties also affects encounter distance. A light source reliance limits the encounter distance to twice the normal vision radius of the source (2× radius of the light source). lnfravision and/or ultravision operate only to the stated limit of their range and limit encounter distance accordingly (DMG, p. 62).

Interpretation: What if, due to prior detection, Party A is surprised but the Party B is not? Determine the normal encounter distance for Party B. Should Party B not react, encounter distance can be determined as normal for Surprise (d3″), otherwise Party B has the number of Surprise segments to react from the normal encounter distance. This contradicts the DMG (p. 62): “If either or both parties are surprised, the distance must be either 1″ to 3″ or it must be less as determined under the actual area modifier.” but takes into account the exception of prior detection (light, noise).

Modifiers to the Chance of Being Surprised (Your Die)

Audial or visual superiority will tend to negate surprise (DMG, p. 194). A party (or group of monsters) is surprised only as easily as its most perceptive member if that awareness can be communicated; in other words, in a party with a ranger (surprised only on 1 in 6), the entire party is only surprised on a 1 in d6 (DMG, p. 61). If awareness is limited (such as a human ranger in the dark), special class or race benefits do not apply (WSG, p. 13, DSG, p. 60).

In the case where the party is surprised on 1 in d6, the overall chance to be surprised is reduced by 1. In this case if the other side would normally surprise 5 in d6, the net result is the party will be surprised only on 4 in d6 (DMG, p. 62)—not Surprised on 5 in d6, and then the duration reduced by 1 segment.

Alertness/Senses can make a party or individual less susceptible to surprise:

Alertness makes the ettin difficult to surprise (decreasing the Surprise range by 1 to 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to their alertness (MM, p. 20).
All cloud giants have a keen sense of smell, thus they are surprised only a 1 in d6 (decreasing the Surprise range by 1 to 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to their alertness (MM, p. 44).
Hell hounds have keen hearing, and they are surprised on a die roll of 1 in d6) (decreasing the Surprise range by 1 to 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to their alertness) (MM, p. 51).
Satyrs have keen senses, so are surprised only on a 1 (decreasing the Surprise range by 1 to 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to their alertness (MM, p. 85).
The keen hearing and eyesight of giant apes makes them only surprised on a 1 (decreasing the Surprise range by 1 to 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to their alertness (MM, p. 7).
The unusual peripheral vision of the kna, kopru, and shark decreases their Surprise range by 1 to 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6 (PC3, p. 3).
Rangers (& Duelists) are surprised only on 1 in d6 (decreasing the surprise range by 1, normally to 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to their alertness (Polyhedron #12, p. 10). [The Ranger ability originally derived from their tracking.⁴]
Barbarians are surprised only on 1 in d10 (effectively decreasing the normal range by 4 from 2 in d6 to 1 in d10 (see Calculating Cumulative Surprise below) due to their alertness. This further decreases the normal range by an additional 2 (to 1 in 20) if in familiar terrain. [I find this overpowering at a party level, and instead consider the Barbarian ability as identical to the Ranger ability. That also removes a recurring Surprise d10 complication.]
With a proficiency check, characters with Alertness decrease the range by 1, now 1 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6. Assuming an ability to communicate to others in the party, their chance of being surprised is also reduced by that amount. Otherwise treat the number of segments they are surprised as reduced by 1. Interpretation: This does not stack with the class abilities that reduce the chance of being surprised—those classes effectively have this proficiency without the requirement for a proficiency slot or proficiency check.

Interpretation: A few creatures with exceptional senses are defined as unable to be Surprised (Brownies with “exceptional senses”, barbed devils “alert at all times”, eagles “eyesight”, leprechaun’s “keen ears”. Exceptional senses could be calculated as an additional -1 from Surprise for extreme sensory capacity (considered as surprised 0 in 6 prior to other adjustments). Keen senses can be interpreted as being twice as good (seeing or hearing twice as far).

Modifiers to the Chance of Surprising Others (Their Die)

Surprise capability relates to special movement ability and possibly other factors (DMG, p. 194). A party with an increased chance to surprise their opponents increases their opponents’ range from 1-2 in d6 to 1-3 or more (also increasing the potential number of segments that their opponent(s) can be surprised), but only if that increased chance of surprise is true for the entire party (e.g., all rangers, a group of only halflings and elves 90’ in advance not wearing armor, all huge spiders, etc.).

Rolls that adjust the Surprise roll (such as Hide in Shadows, Move Silently, or Boots of Elvenkind) must be checked prior to a Surprise roll, as success can indicate an improved chance to surprise an opponent (PHB, p. 102, 103).

Noise can negate surprise considerations, whether the sound is the normal progress of the party or a failed attempt to open a door. Characters in metal armor can be heard for 90′, hard boots can be heard at 60′, and relatively quiet movement can be heard at 30′ (DMG, p. 68).
Being hidden (invisibility, camouflage, hiding in shadows) increases the opponents’ chance of being surprised by 1 (increasing the opponents’ range by 1, i.e., surprised on 1-3 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) (PHB, p. 103; Drmg #133; FF, p. 17, Bullywug). One cannot Hide in Shadows and Move (Silently) (DMG, p. 19, PHB, p. 28).
Move Silently/Silence increases the opponents’ chance of being surprised by 1 (increasing the opponents’ range by 1, i.e., surprised on 1-3 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to stealth (PHB, p. 103, Drmg#133). One cannot Hide in Shadows and Move (Silently) (DMG, p. 19, PHB, p. 28). Bugbears and undead are explicitly silent (DMG, p. 60), also increasing the opponents’ chance of being surprised by 1. Hell hounds “move with great stealth”, granting them the ability to surprise on 1-4 in d6 (MM, p. 51).
Psionic invisibility is a mind control ability (“The Shadow Knows!”) which is more similar to the druidic Invisibility to Animals, for the affected creature(s) does not notice sounds or odors from the psionic (DMG, p. 60), increasing the opponents’ range by 2 (1-4 in d6) due to being hidden and silent.
Elves and Halflings surprise opponents 1-4 in d6 when not in metal armor and 90’ in advance (increasing their opponents’ range by 2, i.e., surprised on 1-4 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6), due to both their stealth and ability to be hidden. If they open a portal, that chance for surprise returns to 1-2 in d6. See also Solonor (UA, p. 113).
Metal armor is not a factor for rangers, clarifying that the ranger Surprise benefit isn’t due to silence. Rangers surprise opponents 50% of the time (increasing their opponent’s chance of being surprised by 1, i.e., surprised on 1-3 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6 (Polyhedron #12, p. 10) due to their ability to hide. This ability doesn’t explicitly include conditions, but rangers can’t surprise opponents aware of their companions and thus require the same distance as elves and halflings—rangers must be at least 90’ in advance.
Metal armor is not a factor for barbarians when calculating Surprise, clarifying that the barbarian Surprise benefit isn’t due to silence. Barbarians increase their opponents’ chance of being surprised by 1 (increasing their opponents range by 1, i.e., surprised on 1-3 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6) due to their ability to hide, with an additional 1-point increase if also in familiar terrain (i.e., surprised on 1-4 in d6 instead of 1-2 in d6), due to the barbarian’s ability to hide in known terrain. The barbarian’s ability doesn’t include conditions, but barbarians can’t surprise opponents aware of their companions and thus require the same distance as elves, halflings, and rangers—they must be at least 90’ in advance.
The bullywug, when camouflaged, can further increase the chance of surprise by 2 by hopping 3″ to the attack.

Modifiers are cumulative when dissimilar. Example: A lone invisible elf not wearing metal armor comes upon an orc. The standard chance of being surprised is 1-2 in d6. For the orc, its range is increased due to the elf (+2 from being hidden and silent), but not further increased due to the elf’s invisibility (+1) as the elf is already hidden—the orc will be surprised if it rolls 1-4 in d6.

If both parties determine results in their range for Surprise, Surprise segments are calculated based on the difference of the resulting segments of Surprise. After rolling Surprise, the elf is surprised for 2 segments, and the orc is surprised for 4 segments—The end result is the orc is surprised for 2 segments (4 segments of surprise –2 segments of surprise) before moving on to Initiative (DMG, p. 61).

Modifiers to the Duration of Individual Surprise

Individual adjustments for Dexterity and Encumbrance never create (or negate) Surprise itself; instead they subtract (or add) segments for individuals once the party is surprised. The Dexterity Reaction/Attacking Bonus affects that many segments of surprise for that individual only, e.g. on a range of 1-2, with the group rolling a 2, a lightly-encumbered character with a 16 Dexterity (+1 Reaction/Attacking) would be affected for one less segment. If an opponent then attempts to attack them, the attack defers to the standard initiative round (DMG, pp. 62, 71).

Encumbered (> 105# or very bulky equipment) characters are slowed greatly (PHB, p. 102); when the party is surprised, an encumbered character will be affected for an additional two segments.
“Very Heavy” encumbrance (#105 or bulky armor/equipment) causes a character’s reactions to be “slowed” (in a situation of surprise) (PHB, p.102). If the party is surprised, the individual is affected for an additional segment.
“Heavy” encumbrance (70# or fairly bulky armor/equipment) defines “no bonuses” to Surprise. Dexterity Reaction adjustment to segments of Surprise? Gone! (The ranger’s actual abilities are unaffected however, since the Reaction bonus only affects mitigating surprise (DMG, p. 62)]
Only lightly or unencumbered characters [reaction normal or better], (PHB p. 101) gain the Dexterity Reaction/Attacking Bonus:
- If the Dexterity Reaction modifier reduces the Surprise segments for an individual, that individual still can’t act during Surprise even if Dexterity reduces the individual’s Surprise segments to 0 (or below). If they are attacked individually, they are up and on their guard (DMG, p. 71), so opponents will not get an attack until Initiative.
- All armors except leather and elfin chain are fairly bulky or bulky, making the character more than lightly encumbered for purposes of Surprise.
- Magic armor has the same encumbrance as non-magic armor. The properties of magic armor allow movement at the next higher base rate (DMG, p. 28), not with less encumbrance.
- Large shields are bulky (see “Very Heavy”). Magical shields however are non-bulky with respect to encumbrance (DMG, p. 28).

Interpretation: I choose to limit surprise attacks to a single attack per segment for 2 segments.

Actions During Surprise

While the attacker’s opponent(s) is/are surprised, each surprise segment the attacker may perform the following as if it were an entire round:

Do nothing.
Attempt to parlay.
Evasion is automatic if outdoors (DMG, p. 69).
Move 1″ (and potentially close for melee).
Prepare (e.g., drawing or setting a weapon).
^*Charge 2” (if close enough) and attack.
^*Fire missile weapons.³ If “nocked and ready” on the first segment of Surprise, add an extra missile.
^*Use a breath weapon (if normally possible!).
Attempt to activate a magical device. The device could activate during Surprise. If not enough surprise segments exist to complete activation, subtract each surprise segment from the future initiative roll (2 under my 20-segment combat round).
Hide in Shadows (if thief, assassin, or monk).
^*Melee or grapple (if prepared and within 1″).
^*Back stab (if thief or assassin and within 1″). Surprise is required to gain the damage multiplier and +4 to hit instead of the standard +2 for a rear attack.^2,6 If at the rear, strike at +4 to hit for each surprise segment. Striking from the rear also negates any shield or Dexterity bonus. The back stab damage multiplier applies for only the first segment of surprise attack (DMG, p. 74, PHB, p. 27, Polyhedron #31, p. 29).

After surprise ends, if a thief removes themself from melee such that their opponents are no longer aware of the thief’s presence, the thief could reenter combat, attempt to Move Silently behind their opponent, and back stab again. However, they can’t gain surprise as long as their opponent is aware of their location, so have only the standard rear attack bonus of +2 with no damage multiplier.

^*Roll on the Assassination Table (if an assassin and within 1″). See notes under back stab.
Spells that require but a single segment can be cast in a surprise segment. Longer-casting-time spells can only be begun during the first segment of surprise (DMG, p. 61), and if not completed by the end of Surprise subtract 1 segment (2 under my 20 segment initiative system) for each surprise segment from the future initiative round.

“[M]agic spells require the proper number of segments of casting time” (PHB., p. 103). However, surprise permits only “telling blows [and missile discharge] each segment,” not spell casting. With three segments of Surprise, a spell caster can: cast a 3-segment spell; move one segment and cast a two-segment spell; or cast three segments of a four-segment (or more) spell. The caster does not know how long their opponent will be surprised when declaring actions.

^*Turn undead (also action 4.D), limited by failure preventing future attempts.

^*If an attacker with Surprise individually directs an attack at an opponent who for whatever reason is not surprised (e.g., a Dexterity bonus), the attack is ineffective.

Number of Melee Attacks During Surprise

The Player’s Handbook states (p. 103):

Physical attacks during surprise situations are also possible on a 1-per-segment basis, whether the form is by weapon, projectile, or method intrinsic to the creature (claws, fangs, etc.).

and the DMG reads (p. 62):

the surprising party will be able to attempt telling blows during each segment of surprise as if the segment were an entire round! That is, a fighter able to attack twice during a normal round of combat will be able to do so twice during each surprise segment, so dice are rolled for hit determination accordingly. Even if distance prevents striking with weapons, the discharge of arrows, bolts or hand-hurled weapons is permissible at three times the normal rate providing the weapon/missiles are ready, otherwise at normal rates for rounds. Once surprise segments are over, melee proceeds normally on around-by-round basis.

which clarifies that the PHB “attack” is an full round’s attack sequence, not just a single attack.

Number of Missile Attacks During Surprise

The PHB permits 1 arrow / segment of Surprise (“Physical attacks during surprise situations are also possible on a 1 per segment basis, whether the form is by weapon, projectile, or method intrinsic to the creature“). The DMG changed that to: “Even if distance prevents striking with weapons, the discharge of arrows, bolts or hand-hurled weapons is permissible at three times the normal rate providing the weapon/missiles are ready, otherwise at normal rates for rounds.”

The normal rate of missile fire is twice per round—2 arrows every 10 segments. Triple that would be 6 arrows every round—1 arrow per segment. That timing is consistent with the Crossbow of Speed:
In surprise situations it is of no help, but in complete surprise situations the held crossbow will enable its user to fire in the 2nd segment portion.

Gygax himself did not intend that to read as 6 arrows / segment.⁵

Additional Notes

A thief Moving Silently can prompt a Surprise roll even when expected.
A thief failing to Move Silently triggers a Surprise roll for both sides (as the thief doesn’t know they failed their Move Silently).
An attack when using Dust of Disappearance is always by surprise (assumed for the entire party if silent). Roll normal surprise, with a minimum of 1 segment of surprise for the opponent party.
A character wearing the Robe of Eyes can easily detect hidden things; surprise of a character wearing a Robe of Eyes due to things being hidden is impossible.
The Crossbow of Speed can fire during Surprise on the 2nd segment of surprise (“complete surprise”) (DMG, p. 168). Loading and firing a normal crossbow therefore can’t be accomplished during 2 segments of Surprise.
Sandstorms and frostbite both increase the chance to be surprised by 1 (increasing the party’s potential surprise range by 1) (WSG p. 28, 29).
A garrote attack will only succeed with Complete Surprise from behind (UA, pl. 27).
While a weapon might be poisoned before the Surprise round, the poison will only affect the first strike: “Blades can likewise be coated with a toxic resin … cause a poison saving throw to be made by the first creature initially struck by such a weapon (PHB, p. 107)”.
Assassins can don disguise to create the opportunity for surprise (see PHB, p.29).
Improved Invisibility has the effect of moving considerations for detection of such invisibility downwards by two places compared to other forms of invisibility on the Detection of Invisibility Table, not Surprise, so still increases the range of Surprise by 1 (1-3 in d6) (DMG, p. 47).
The Rod of Alertness (UA, p. 94) “bestows +1 to the possessor’s die rolls for being surprised”. While it might appear this creates additional segments of surprise, it does not. A normal PC is surprised on 1-2 in d6: a 1 in 6 chance of being surprised 1 segment (if a 1 is rolled), and a 1 in 6 chance of being surprised for 2 segments (if a 2 is rolled). After adding a +1 to the die, the chance of being surprised 2 segments is the same (1 in 6, if a 1 + 1 is rolled), but it’s no longer possible to be surprised 1 segment.

Interpretations

Outdoors, if not surprised themselves, a party with Surprise can withdraw (where possible) unnoticed (DMG, p. 49, 69, 183). Complete Surprise is required (more than 1 segment of surprise) underground.
Encounter distances are defined for a normal party. But what about the thief (or elves, etc.) moving silently? The “relatively quiet movement” of the lightly-armored thief can only be heard at 30′ (DMG, p. 68). At 30′, roll Surprise (potentially modified by Move Silently), and resolve Surprise encounter distance as normal (d3″) (DMG, p. 62).
While performing a back stab from Surprise after a successful Move Silently, the thief could be considered to also be invisible (as their opponent can’t see them), surprising on 1-4 in 6 (receiving both the Hidden and Silent modifiers to Surprise).
The monk’s chance of being surprised drops 2% per level. However, the duration of surprise isn’t necessarily reduced. Reformulating the monk ability, monks are surprised: 2 in d8 at Level 5, 2 in d10 at Level 8, 2 in d12 at Level 10, 2 in d20 at Level 13, and 1 in d20 at Level 16. Invisibility and Stealth modify as normal (e.g., a hidden, silent thief will surprise a Level 5 monk 1-4 in 8).
If, at the beginning of a round, a new 3rd party has suddenly entered combat, treat this as the beginning of a new encounter. Each engaged party makes a new surprise roll. Surprise is resolved, and then Initiative continues as normal. This is the same explanation as why Surprise for back stab in melee, effectively starting a new encounter (as an encounter is defined as “An unexpected confrontation with a monster, another party, etc.”) (DMG, p. 228). It’s also consistent with when Initiative starts, “when an encounter occurs” (DMG, p. 62). The 3rd party initiates a new encounter, restarting the entire encounter sequence.
Attacking a (normally) sleeping creature triggers a Surprise check (with a minimum of 1) as if the attacker is Invisible (1-3 in 6).
Priests of Nerull use the mechanic of “surprised 2 in 12” to represent the ability to be surprised on only 1 in d6, but still be surprised for two segments.¹Perfect for the Ranger 1 in d6.
The piercer surprises 95% of the time. Given the piercer’s movement / segment (1′) and inability to attack without falling, the number of segments of surprise aren’t relevant. They either get a free attack, or the party isn’t surprised, and attack order is by Initiative.

Edge Case: Spell casting and Surprise

Two parties roll Surprise. The PCs are surprised for 2 segments. The enemy spell caster begins casting a 3-segment spell. Normally, after two segments both groups would roll Initiative, with the spell caster having 1 segment remaining. But what of the case of a single PC whose Surprise has been modified by encumbrance or a low Dexterity to 3? Of the two possible interpretations:
–The spell caster completes their spell, at a penalty to the party.
OR
–everyone rolls Initiative, and the more-Surprised PC’s additional segment just gets ignored, or integrated in the initiative round.

The latter appears more practical, for this extreme edge case.

Group Surprise Rolls

A ranger is surprised only 1 in d6. If they can convey that to the party, then the party is surprised 1 in d6.

But what if they can’t convey that information? You now have the monsters surprised 2 in d6, the party surprised 2 in d6, and the ranger surprised 1 in d6. In that case the ranger subtracts 1 from their own individual surprise.

Alertness works similarly, but requiring a proficiency roll:
“Roll Surprise”.
“Wait, I have Alertness. *roll*. Our Surprise value (range and duration) are decreased by 1.”

The case of three parties in Surprise is the combat example of two parties fighting when a 3rd party comes on the scene. Pause at the beginning of the round, reroll and process Surprise for all 3 groups, and then resume Initiative.

Ambush

The question that often arises is the PCs attempting an ambush. While it’s possible that the PCs can’t be surprised (due to awareness of their opponents), it’s not possible to guarantee surprise for the PCs. Their chance of surprise is 2 in 6. If they’re moderately silent (say more than 90′ away while wearing metal armor), then the GM might grant them “silent”, increasing their chance to 3 in 6. Getting to 4 in 6 would require “hidden”, only possible if the party is thieves, rangers, etc. Magic-users don’t hide so well.

Outdoor encounter range (the point at which the PCs become aware of their opponents) defaults to 6d4″, modified by terrain. Normally, surprise outdoors modifies the encounter range, in addition to the number of segments of free and unanswered activity, subtracting the number of segments of surprise from the encounter range as well.

However, in the case of an ambush, the number of surprise segments should increase the distance between the PCs and their opponents, as surprise provides the PCs more time to prepare, not less.

Example: The PCs, hidden in a grove of trees in a forest, plan to ambush a group of orcs they know will come down the trail, firing at the orcs when the orcs are 12″ away. As the PCs are aware the orcs are coming and can’t be surprised, they don’t roll surprise. The GM rolls surprise for the orcs and rolls a 2 (surprised for 2 segments, and 2 segments further away). The forest will subtract 6″ (1 / die) from the encounter range. The surprise will add 2″. If the encounter distance (6d4 – 6 + 2) is now ≥12″, the PCs plans will come to fruition, waiting to fire until the orcs reach 12″. However, if the encounter range is < 12″, the PCs will fire at the encounter range. They’ll get 2 segments to attack, and then both sides will roll for initiative.

It’s important to note that just because the PCs believe the orcs will come down the trail does not guarantee the PCs cannot be surprised, as the orcs could arrive early, have outlying scouts, etc. Rolling surprise for the PCs can still be appropriate.

Wise players won’t argue for the ability to automatically ambush lest the same thing occur to them!

Calculating Cumulative Surprise (Optional)

Any time the range of surprise for a group would be reduced to 0 (i.e., a 0 in d6 chance), the die size is incremented instead (next 1 in d8, then 1 in d10, etc.). Blackmoor uses this for the monk (“At 3rd level monks are surprised only on a roll of 1 in 6, at 5th level only 1 in 8, and at 7th level and above only 1 in 10.”). The same applies to a Surprise chance of 1-6 in d6, instead converting to 1-7 in d8, etc.

Any time the range of surprise would be increased (say a halfing at 4 in 6 encountering a drow at 1 in 8), increase the drow by the difference from 2 in 6. So the halfing is 2 better than 2 in 6, so the drow’s surprise roll would be 1-3 on d8.

For a by-the-book example of a similar methodology, consider the greenhag, which surprises 1-5 in d6. If invisible (which normally would be 1-6 in d6), the greenhag instead surprises 19 in 20.

There are rare instances where surprise could be converted into d100. If the opponent uses a different die than d6 to calculate surprise (d8, d10, even d20), then modifications to their range of being surprised could be calculated on d100 (such as adding 16.67% from the ranger ability to the 5% chance of the creature surprised only 1 in 20). But instead, modify by the same number (applying the “1” from the 1 in 6 chance to the 1 in 20, making the range 2 in 20), because that’s faster, easier, and reflects the increased difficulty to surprise that creature.

Appendix A: Surprise: An Operational Guide

Roll Move Silently (where applicable) and other effects that determine Hidden or Silent (such as Boots or Cloak of Elvenkind) if and only if they apply to the entire party.
1. Move Silently (and other effects) provide a Base Surprise modifier you need for the next step
Determine the potential Base Surprise for each involved Party
1. Normally 2 in 6, this can be modified by Class, Race/Monster, Stealth/Silence, and Alertness
2. See https://dnd.sinister.net/im-surprised/ for extended details
Roll Base Surprise for each party (normally 1-2 in d6)
Determine Encounter Distance
1. If any party was surprised: d3″ (indoors); 6d4″ modified by terrain – Base Surprise” (outdoors)
2. If neither party was surprised: d6 +4″ (indoors); 6d4″ (outdoors). Move on to Initiative
3. Adjust (if necessary) by line-of-sight/ size of room
Determine party Surprise duration (in segments)
1. Surprise duration is the same number that determines if the party was surprised (e.g., a party that rolled a 5 when surprised 1-5 in d6 is surprised for 5 segments)
2. If neither party is surprised, move on to Initiative
3. If both parties are equally surprised, move on to Initiative
4. If only one party is surprised, Surprise duration for that party is the Base Surprise.
5. If one party is more surprised, Surprise duration (in segments) for the most surprised party is: (most surprised party’s Base Surprise) – (least surprised party’s Base Surprise). Only one party will lose segments and be surprised.
Determine individual Surprise duration
1. Adjust the number of segments each individual in a Surprised party can be affected according to their Dexterity, encumbrance, individual alertness, or other modifiers.
2. An individual with ≤ 0 Surprise segments remaining will no longer be affected by individual attacks (melee or ranged), but cannot respond in any other way.
Process each Base Surprise segment as a full round in but a single segment (actions 4.A-H).
1. Movement is 1/10th normal (a single segment)
2. Casting time is by segment. Any spell not completed in a Surprise segment carries over to the next segment of Surprise, and then carries over into Initiative if still not complete.
3. Ranged weapons fire at three times the normal rate if ready (in other words, if prior to the first surprise segment: “I’ll nock an arrow”, “Ready weapons and missiles”), otherwise at normal rates (I read this as one arrow the first segment if nocked and ready, and one arrow for each later Surprise segments).
4. Any individual attack (melee or ranged) against a surprised opponent with no remaining individual surprise segments is deferred to Initiative.
Process extended Surprise
1. Any individual with remaining Surprise segments can be individually attacked (melee or ranged) for any remaining individual surprise segment. No other actions by attacker(s) are possible.
Roll Initiative
1. Adjust any spell casting time by whatever arcane method you use for casting time in 1e Initiative.
If at any point a new party enters the fray during Initiative rounds, repeat the Surprise process (above).

References

⁴Strategic Review, Vol. 1, No. 2, “Rangers: An Exciting New Dungeons & Dragons Class,” Summer 1975.
Dungeons & Dragons Additional Rules for Fantastic Medieval Wargames Campaigns Playable with Paper and Pencil and Miniature Figures, Supplement 1: Greyhawk. Gary Gygax and Rob Kuntz, 1976.
Dungeons & Dragons Additional Rules for Fantastic Medieval Wargames Campaigns Playable with Paper and Pencil and Miniature Figures, Supplement 2: Blackmoor. Dave Arneson, 1975.
Dungeons & Dragons Additional Rules for Fantastic Medieval Wargames Campaigns Playable with Paper and Pencil and Miniature Figures, Supplement 3: Eldritch Wizardry. Gygax & Blume, 1976.
TSR 2010, Players Handbook, 1978.
TSR 2011, Dungeon Masters Guide, 1979.
Polyhedron #12, “Dispel Confusion”, 1983, p. 10.
Dragon Magazine, Issue 42, “Sage Advice”, October 1980, p. 23.
¹Dragon Magazine, Issue 71, “Deities & Demigods of Greyhawk”, March 1983.
Polyhedron #24, “Dispel Confusion”, 1985, p. 36.
TSR 2017, Unearthed Arcana, 1985.
TSR 2020, Wilderness Survival Guide, 1986.
²Polyhedron #31, “Dispel Confusion”, 1987, p. 29.
⁶Dragon Magazine, Issue 117, “Sage Advice”, January 1986, p. 54.
Dragon Magazine, Issue 133, “Surprise: Determining who gets the drop on whom”, May 1988.
³Zagyg’s Wisdom, https://www.dragonsfoot.org/forums/viewtopic.php?f=50&t=10004&start=180
https://playingattheworld.blogspot.com/2012/08/gygaxs-thief-addition-1974.html [original thief]
http://murphysvictim.blogspot.com/2013/03/1st-edition-ad-surprise-not-so-difficult.html
https://nagorascorner.blogspot.com/2018/05/surprised-and-confused.html [history]
Great Plains Games Players Newsletter #9.
⁴Dragonsfoot.org, March 15, 2005. https://www.dragonsfoot.org/forums/viewtopic.php?f=50&t=10004&p=166208 “As far as my intent went, there was no difference between a blow and a missile attack in regards to surprise. So if there are three segments of surprise, the weapon has a RoF of two per segment, then six attacks could indeed be made thus.”

Oops, I’ve Stolen Something

Last updated: 180808…250906
stolen@corwyn.net

Overview

PCs are left occasionally left with time on their hands. Mages & clerics research spells, fighters compete in the arena. The thief? Pick Pockets is a simple roll, but what would be the outcome? What if the thief wants to acquire more than a few coppers between adventures? Or the Guild makes a demand that can’t be refused? Theft within an “adventure” context requires one-on-one time with the player and DM, or extended downtime for other players while the thief role-plays the encounter that the DM had to create.

Borrowing from various resources, hewing closely to 1st Edition rules, I present here a system for Pick Pockets and Theft. Rules scattered far and wide are consolidated and streamlined, filling in gaps. Player decisions still affect outcomes. For critical life-or-death moments, tables provide granularity, but the generalities are treated, well, more generally.

Pick Pockets

Up to two pick pockets attempts can be made during a round. A successful Pick Pockets roll gains an item from the victim; the item is determined at random unless the exact location of a particular item is known by the thief.

The potential victim reduces the thief’s chances for success by 5% for every level of experience they are above the 3rd, i.e. –5% at 4th level, etc. Chances of success are also affected by the Category of the target: Simple (a lowly farmer), Difficult (a merchant, –10%), or Extraordinary (adventurer/nobility, –15%).

Pick Pockets fails if the player rolls above their chance to Pick Pockets. If the roll fails by 21% or greater, the victim notices the thief’s attempt (note the victim might notice yet allow the thief to operate in order to track them back to headquarters). Undiscovered failures allow additional attempts (twice / round).

Success

Once a pocket is successfully picked, roll 2d10, modified by Category (Simple +0, Difficult +8, Extraordinary +12):

2d10	Result
2	Lint
3	Parchment with a mundane note
4	A key
5	Lower class personal item (rabbit’s foot, needle, dice, playing cards, small knife, etc.) of no value
6	A small vial or flask
7	Coins (2d6 cp)
8	Coins (2d6 sp)
9	Gem (10 gp)
10	Lint
11	Parchment with a business note
12	A key
13	Middle class small personal item (rabbit’s foot, needle, dice, playing cards, small knife, etc.) worth d4 gp
14	A small vial or flask (1% chance DMG Table III.A Potions)
15	Coins (2d6 sp)
16	Coins (2d6 gp)
17	Gem (50 gp)
18	Small jewelry (wrought gold, 2d20 gp)
19-20	Lint
21	Parchment with official communication
22	A key
23	Upper class small personal item (rabbit’s foot, needle, dice, playing cards, small knife, etc.) worth d8 gp
24	A small vial or flask (5% chance DMG Table III.A Potions)
25	Coins (2d6 gp)
26	Coins (2d6 pp)
27	Small jewelry (silver with gems, d100 gp)
28	Roll twice on this table, ignoring results after this.
29	Trap
30	Roll again on this table. Appears successful, but something important was stolen and the target really wants their loot back. Mercenaries are hired to track the thief down.
31	Roll on Gem table, DMG p. 25
32	Roll on Jewelry Table, DMG p. 26

Pick Pockets Failure

The result of a known failure is adjusted for the Category (Simple +0, Difficult+2, Extraordinary +4).

d10	Result
1	Chased. Lose d6 CON from exhaustion. Roll Evasion or lose d6 hp (cannot be fatal) and CON recovers one point per day of rest.
2	Beaten up—lose d6 hit points unless armored.
3	City Guard. Bribe way out with d100 gp or Arrested.
4	Chased. Lose d6 DEX. Roll Evasion or be injured for 2d6 hp (cannot be fatal). DEX recovers one point per day of rest.
5	Beaten up—lose 3d6 hit points unless armored.
6	Chased. Lose d6 STR. Roll Evasion or lose 3d6 hp (none in armor, non-fatal). STR recovers one point per day of rest.
7	City Guard. Arrested. If a guild member, the Thieves’ Guild will arrange bail for 2d100 gp, expecting the money back at 100% interest.
8	Beaten up and robbed—lose 5d6 hit points (none in armor, non-fatal), plus anything vaguely useful or valuable is taken.
9	Grabbed by a crowd of locals and punished: 1. pilloried, 2. tarred and feathered, 3. stripped naked & chased.
10	Word of ineptitude reaches Thieves’ Guild. Lose guild membership. If not a member of the guild beaten for 2d6 damage, increasing d6 for each offense.
11	Trapped. Explosive dye, a man-trap just right for prying hands.
12	City Guard. Can kill guard to attempt Evasion.
13	Steal a cursed item.
14	Killed (Save vs. Death to escape).

Burglary

A thief with access to civilization may perform solo burglary missions—the Heist!

Theory

Three different “By The Book” foundations exist for determining the success of a heist:

Assassins’ Table for Assassinations (DMG, p. 75)
Assassin Spying Table (DMG, p. 18)
The Thief Functions (PHB, p. 28)

The Assassination Table relies on a single roll, taking into account the level of the victim, which could be used to determine reward vs. difficulty, but burglary is more like spying than assassination. A Spy succeeds based on two Spying Table rolls (counting Discovery). Thieves could use different Thief Functions if performing a heist through roleplay, which has a certain appeal, as those abilities adjust based on character level, class, race, and Dexterity. The Thief Functions can also be modified by magical items (such as Boots of Elvenkind affecting Move Silently). However, exercising multiple thief functions during a typical heist (requiring individual rolls for each Thief Function) almost guarantees failure. Perhaps an average of those combined values? Pick Pockets would be excluded, given its clear use for a different task. Hear Noise and Read Languages are outliers from a success perspective, leaving five abilities: Open Locks, Finding Traps, Moving Silently, Hiding in Shadows, and Climbing Walls. That generates an Averaged Thief Function, which lends itself to a rounded/simplified composite of the thief and assassin abilities:

Thief Level	Averaged Thief Functions (Rounded)	Assassin Spying Table
Thief Level	Averaged Thief Functions (Rounded)	Simple	Difficult	Extraordinary
1	31%	50%	30%	10%
2	35%	55%	35%	15%
3	39%	60%	35%	15%
4	44%	65%	40%	20%
5	49%	70%	45%	25%
6	54%	75%	50%	25%
7	59%	80%	55%	30%
8	64%	85%	60%	35%
9	69%	85%	60%	40%
10	74%	90%	65%	45%

The averaged chance of success across all the Thief Functions are all similar to the Difficult Assassin Spying Table tasks, varying no more than +9%. Using the existing Thief Functions to determine success hews closer to 1e than directly using the Assassination Table or creating yet another table. Averaged Thief Functions are the baseline of Heist success.

The more difficult the job, the higher the reward for success but also the higher the penalty for failure? Incorporating the Assassin table, heists would be separated into the Simple, Difficult, and Extraordinary.

How long does it take for a successful heist, when taking into account preparation and execution? Casing the joint is easier and shorter than a spying mission, and the odds of being discovered are less than a spying mission, so the difficulty categories should be adjusted downward from a time and discovery perspective.

Thief Function Modifiers

What about the invisible PC? A halfling? Wearing Boots of Elvenkind? Using a Chime of Opening? With a high Dexterity? Flying? The Averaged score combines five different Thief Functions (Open Locks, Finding Traps, Moving Silently, Hiding in Shadows, and Climbing Walls), suggesting a methodology to modify the overall chance of success—adjust the base Thief Functions percentages to modify the overall chance of success if one determines any delta to the individual Thief Function, and adjusts the overall chance of success by the delta divided by 5 (to represent the overall change across the five Thief Functions). Using this general methodology, the DM can readily (and less arbitrarily) determine modifications to the chance of success based on player specifics. Two adjustments to the same Thief Function might or might not be considered additive. Any one Thief Function shouldn’t adjust over 95%. Let’s look at some examples:

A halfling is 10% better at Moving Silently, which would increase the overall chance of success by 2% (10%, divided by the five Thief Functions).
If a 5th level thief (Move Silently 40%) were wearing Boots of Elvenkind (95%), his ability to Move Silently is effectively 95% (a 55% increase), increasing his overall chance by 11% (55%, divided by the five Thief Functions).
If an 8th level thief were invisible, his Hide in Shadows ability could increase from 49% to 95% (note the 95% maximum), an increase of 46% improvement in Hide in Shadows, or a 9% increase to his overall chance of success.
A Chime of Opening for a 5th level thief? 42% Open Locks to 95%, but –25% from Move Silently for the time(s) the Chime is used, so and 11% –5% modifier.

PC Characteristics

The effects of Race and Ability score modifiers can also be pre-calculated using the existing tables for race and ability:

Race	Heist Modifier
Dwarf	+3%	+10% Open Locks, +15% Find Traps, -10% Climb Walls
Elf	+2%	-5% Open Locks, +5% Move Silently, +10% Hide in Shadows,
Gnome	+2%	+5% Open Locks, +10% Find Traps, +5% Move Silently, +5% Hide in Shadows, -15% Climb Walls
Half-Elf	+1%	+5% Hide in Shadows
Halfling	+4%	+5% Open Locks, +5% Find Traps, +10% Move Silently, +15% Hide in Shadows, -15% Climb Walls
Half-Orc	+4%	+5% Open Locks, +5% Find Traps, +5% Climb Walls

Dexterity Score	Heist Modifier (No dexterity bonuses apply when wearing armor other than simple leather)
16	+1%	+5% Open Locks
17	+4%	+10% Open Locks, +5% Move Silently, +5% Hide in Shadows
18	+8%	+15% Open Locks, +5% Find Traps, +10% Move Silently, +10% Hide in Shadows
19	+12%	+20% Open Locks, +10% Find Traps, +12% Move Silently, +12% Hide in Shadows

Armor

Armor	Heist Modifier
None	+5%	+10% Move Silently, +5% Hide in Shadows, +10% Climb Walls

A thief wearing no armor gains a +5% Heist Modifier (from the associated Unearthed Arcana: +10% Move Silently, +5% Hide in Shadows, +10% Climb Walls, which could affect adjustments from other sources). However, the thief is now at greater risk in any encounters if things go wrong, as they’re no longer wearing armor!

Thieves’ Guild

The thief can increase their chance of success, and make the fencing of stolen goods easier, as a member of the Thieves’ Guild, for a percentage to the Thieves’ Guild. The initiation fee for the Thieves’ Guild costs 1,000 gp (± 500 based on city size, ±500 based on approved theft difficulty). A Thieves’ Guild will require a 15% cut of any crimes committed.

Membership in the Thieves’ Guild increases the chance of any success by 5d4%.

There is a 20% chance that the Thieves’ Guild will become aware of the crime if the thief is not a member.

Chance of Discovery

It takes time to execute a successful heist: making discreet inquiries; identifying a target; casing the joint; waiting for the right moment (moonless night, appropriate distraction, owner out of town); leaving no trace behind. The Base Chance to be Discovered is a cumulative 1% per day spent preparing (subject to a maximum of 10%), minus the level of the thief, to a minimum of 1%. The probability of discovery depends on the Category of the heist:

Heist Category	Time to Prepare	Probability of Discovery
Simple	1 to 8 days	1%, checked each week
Difficult	3 to 24 days	Base Chance%, checked each week
Extraordinary	5 to 40 days	Base Chance%, checked twice per week

Sometimes, the thief is in a hurry! Decrease the chance of Heist Success by 1% for each day the thief needed to prepare, and doesn’t!

Frequency

Repeated heists in a short time will put town citizens on alert! Each successive heist attempted within an identical period (i.e., d8 days from the last Simple heist) will decrease the chance of success by d10%.

Chance of discovery will increase tenfold if a thief is discovered and another heist is attempted during a period of 20 to 50 days thereafter. If the heist is discovered, go to the Heist Failure Table below.

Results

Once all modifiers have been tabulated, the DM checks the Heist Chance for Success to determine Success or Failure. 5% or less will always fail, and even success won’t always mean getting away scot-free!

Example

We have a 9^th level (69%) dwarven (3%) thief with a 19 Dexterity (+12%) who isn’t wearing armor (+5%). They’re attempting a simple heist with no preparation (-d8%) where they rolled a 7:

69% + 3% + 12% + 5% – 7% = 82%.

Before they set out, a MU casts Invisibility on them, increasing their Hide in Shadows from 56% to 95% (an increase of 39% divided by the five Thief Functions, or +8%).

Before he sets out, a friendly cleric casts Silence 15′ Radius on him, increasing his Move Silently from 70% to 95% (an increase of 25% divided by the five Thief functions, or 5%). However the Silence will only last 18 rounds in this case, where the Heist will take an hour, so the DM grants only a 2% bonus.

Totaling a 92% chance of success, almost as good as the 95% maximum permits!

Treasure

The Treasure Category Multiplier matches the crime: Simple (200 gp), Difficult (1,000 gp, +10% to roll), Extraordinary (5,000 gp, +20% to roll)

d100	Treasure	Details
1-21	Nothing of Value
22-45	Coins	d6 * Category Modifier gp in various coins.¹ Note coin weight!
46-60	Gems	d6 * Category Modifier gp in various gems. See DMG, p.25, Treasure Type Q (×[n])
61-70	Jewelry	d6 * Category Modifier gp in various jewelry. See DMG, p. 26
71-80	Gems and Jewelry	d6 * Category Modifier gp in gems and jewelry or Treasure Type R. See DMG, p. 26-27.
81-90	Rare Commodities	d6 * Category Modifier gp. See DMG, p. 27.
91-95	Antiquities	d6 * Category Modifier gp value.
96-98	Religious Icon	d6 * Category Modifier gp value.
99-100	Potions	Simple (1 potion), Difficult (d3 potions), Extraordinary (d6 potions) or Treasure Type S.
101-105	Scroll(s)	Simple (1 spell, lvl 1-3), Difficult (d3 spells, lvl 2-5), Extraordinary (d6 spells, lvl 3-7) or Treasure Type T.
106-119	Roll Twice on this Table	Can roll more than once, less than this.
120	The Motherload	Treasure Type I (gems, jewelry, magic).

Coin distribution varies on Category: Simple (20%sp/30%ep/50%gp), Difficult (30%ep/55%gp/15%pp), and Extraordinary (80%gp/20%pp). Multiply % * (value in gp), then adjust for value of coins (i.e., gp value * 20 for # of silver).

Heist Success!

Should the thief succeed, roll to determine the results.

Heist Results Modifiers:

Results Modifiers	Results Roll Modifier
Difficult	+10
Extraordinary	+20

Heist Results

Heist Results Table
d100	Type of Result
≤01-10	Success
11-15	Wild success (roll again on the Treasure Table)
16-35	Partial success (Flight, acquiring only 10%-90% of the Treasure value)
36-65	Success
66-80	Quality success (+25% on Treasure Table)
81-85	Trapped (Walk Away or make Remove Traps check to succeed). See DMG Appendix G. (d6: 1-2 Damage, 3-4 Poison Type A-C, 5-6 Lethal)
86-90	Poisoned (requires Save vs. Poison): Type A 15 hp damage (Simple), Type B 25 hp damage (Difficult), Type C 35 hp damage (Extraordinary). Chance to notice poison: A:80%/B:65%/C:40%^*
91-95	Poisoned (requires Save vs. Poison or die): Type D. Chance to notice poison 15%^*
96-100	Apparent success, but if Bribery was used during the heist, they squeal to the Watch after the heist. Arrested. Otherwise no effect.
101-105	Apparent success, but Thieves’ Guild discovers afterwards of unsanctioned heist (if not member of Thieves’ Guild). Check Encounter Reactions for their response. Hostile responses: Fine equal to 2x value of heist, Quest, Expulsion. Otherwise no effect.
106-110	Apparent success, but your target wants their loot back. Mercenaries are hired to track thief down. Captain level 1-3 (Simple), 4-7 (Difficult), 9-12 (Extraordinary)
111-114	Apparent success, but Thieves’ Guild discovers afterwards of unsanctioned heist (if not member of Thieves’ Guild). Check Encounter Reactions for their response. Hostile responses: Fine equal to 2x value of heist, Quest, Expulsion, Death. Otherwise no effect.
115-117	Apparent success, but an Invisible Stalker is summoned to return the stolen goods.
≥117-120	Apparent success, but precious item stolen, creating a powerful enemy who will pursue the PC.

*If the thief notices the poison, they can roll a Saving Throw or safely abandon the heist.

Disposition of Goods

Turning rare or unusual goods into cash creates its own problem. Anything besides coin requires a fence! Without specific proficiencies, the thief’s appraisal of the stolen goods can vary by 10%-200%. Finding a fence will take d4 * (1:Simple, 2:Difficult, 3:Extraordinary) days. When first meeting a fence, determine the Fence’s reaction:

Modifiers (cumulative):

Modifiers to Fence Reaction
+10	Thieves’ Guild Membership
-10	Difficult
-20	Extraordinary
+5	Charisma 13
+10	Charisma 14
+15	Charisma 15
+25	Charisma 16
+30	Charisma 17
+35	Charisma 18

Disposition of Goods Table
d100		Fence Reaction
<01-15		Double-cross (only if value > 5,000 gp). Steals item(s) and escapes (otherwise makes Initial Offer).
16-23		Outraged. Makes Initial Offer but contacts authorities unless member of Thieves’ Guild.
24-29		Fence refuses to deal in commodity. Arrested unless member of Thieves’ Guild.
30-35		Fearful. Fence refuses to deal in commodity.
36-41		Cannot afford goods at this time. Try again in d4 weeks.
42-47		Concerned. Offers reduced by ½.
48-59		Neutral. Makes Initial Offer. Will demand bribe (d6 × 100 gp) for silence if refused.
60-67	Intrigued. Raises maximum offer by (5 × d6)%.
68-83		Neutral. Makes Initial Offer.
84-100		Must Have It. Offers 75% of actual value.

The fence will start with the Initial Offer. The thief can negotiate with another roll on the Disposition of Goods Table. The fence will increase the offer by d20% actual value until failure, agreement or the maximum is reached. There is a 10% chance after each offer that the fence will refuse to do business further.

Initial offer: 10% + 5% × d4 of the actual value
Maximum Offer: 15% + 5% × d12 of the actual value

Experience

A thief receives XP equal to 1/10th the value of goods stolen. This is modified by multipliers for the degree of heist difficulty: Simple (× ½), Difficult (× 1), or Extraordinary (× 1½).

Heist Failure

If a thief fails their Heist Chance of Success roll, it’s time to determine just how awry things have gone. Heist Failures are spread out within the table based on a base change of being Killed (5%), Proof (15%), Escape (25%), Suspicion (20%), and Discovery (chances > 100%).

Failure Modifiers:

Heist Category	Failure Roll Modifier
Difficult	-5
Extraordinary	-10
Discovered	+20

Heist Failure Table
d100		Failure Result
≤01	Killed (5%)	Killed (Save vs. Death if wearing armor).
02-06	Proof (15%)	Arrested with the Goods! See Crime and Punishment.
07-11	Proof (15%)	Arrested with the Goods! Kill City Guard to attempt Evasion.
12-16	Proof (15%)	Attacked with the Goods! 4d6 damage (halved in armor). Arrested or attempt Evasion.
17-21	Proof (15%)	Arrested with the Goods! (d4 × ½ Treasure Category Multiplier) gp to bribe way out of it.
22-41	Escape 25%	Barely Escaped. Further Attempts during Category Preparation Interval are 90% Likely to Fail.
42-46	5%	Nighttime City Encounter (See DMG, Appendix C). Check Encounter Reaction* when appropriate.
47-75	Failure (35%)	Failure. There are many possible causes for basic failure: a lock could not be picked, residents arrived home unexpectedly, left tools at home, etc.
76-80	Suspicious (20%)	Tricked (see DMG, Appendix H).
81-85	Suspicious (20%)	Caught during heist. Arrested for Trespass.
86-90	Suspicious (20%)	Triggered alarm! Arrested for Trespass. Roll Evasion to Escape.
91-95	5%	Underestimated Difficulty (and Reward). Roll entire Attempt again adjusting Category up one step.
96-100	Suspicious (20%)	Triggered alarm! Arrested for Trespass. Roll Evasion at -40% to Escape
101-104	Discovery > 100%	Discovered by Watch entering building. Check Encounter Reaction* to determine arrest for Trespassing.
105-108	Discovery > 100%	Thieves’ Guild learned of unsanctioned heist (if not member). Check Encounter Reaction* for their response. Hostile responses: Fine equal to value of planned heist, Quest, Expulsion. Otherwise no effect.
109-112	Discovery > 100%	If Bribery was used during the heist, they squeal to the Watch before the Heist. Check Encounter Reaction to avoid Arrest.
113-116	Discovery > 100%	Queried by the City Watch. Check Encounter Reaction* to avoid arrest for Trespass.
117-120	Discovery > 100%	Observed. Check Encounter Reaction* for whether they report it. Successful Disguise prevents Arrest.

Adjusted Result (d100)	Encounter Reaction
≤01-05	Violently hostile, immediate attack
06-36	Hostile, immediate action
37-64	Neutral—uninterested / uncertain
65-95	Friendly, immediate action
96-00 (or greater)	Enthusiastically friendly, immediate acceptance

*Any intelligent creature conversed with will react in some way to the character that is speaking. Reaction is determined by rolling percentile dice, adjusting the score for the Charisma Reaction Adjustment, and comparing to the table below:

Charisma Reaction Adjustment
13	+5
14	+10
15	+15
16	+25
17	+30
18	+35

Crime and Punishment

A thief arrested will be charged and tried. Fines and jail time are cumulative. Repeat offenders receive stiffer sentences within the Punishment category. The third (and subsequent) conviction always results in the maximum sentence.

Charges

Crime	Type
Trespassing (Simple, Difficult)	Class 1
Trespassing (Extraordinary)	Class 2
Unarmed Assault	Class 1	Fists or threatening harm
Armed Assault – Lesser	Class 2	Improvised weapons (club, bar stool)
Armed Assault – Greater	Class 4	Deadly weapons or magic
Theft of Goods ≤ 10 gp	Class 1
Theft of Goods 11 gp to 100 gp	Class 2
Theft of Goods 101 gp to 1,000 gp	Class 3
Theft of Goods 1,001 gp to 10,000 gp	Class 4
Theft of Goods > 10,000 gp	Class 5
Using Magic	?	An additional charge of the associated crime Type
Forgery	?	An additional charge of the associated crime Type
Escape/Flight	Class 3	Fleeing the Authorities to escape the consequences of a Crime

Trial

Once arrested, a trial takes place within d6 weeks. The Judge can be bribed with a successful Bribery check (and payment equal to half the fine). Membership in the Thieves Guild will increase the bribery chance by 25%. A failed Bribery check will negatively affect the outcome and always include jail time.

Trial Modifiers	Trial Outcome Adjustment
Bribery	±10
Difficult Crime	+10
Extraordinary Crime	+20
Charisma 13	-5
Charisma 14	-10
Charisma 15	-15
Charisma 16	-25
Charisma 17	-30
Charisma 18	-35

d100	Trial Outcome
<1-30	Acquittal
31-50	Default Punishment (Fine if applicable)
51-65	Default Punishment (Prison if applicable)
66-75	Default Punishment (Both Fine and Prison if applicable)
76-95	Third conviction, or Class 4 and above: Mutilation. Otherwise Fine and Prison. Sentence carried out in d4 days.
96-100+	Third conviction for Class 4 and above: Death. Otherwise Fine and Prison. Sentence carried out in d6 days.

Type of Crime	Punishment
Class 1	Fine: 1d6 gp OR Jail: 1 Day OR Both
Class 2	Fine: 10d6 gp OR Jail: d6 Weeks OR Both
Class 3	Fine: 100d6 gp OR Jail: d6 Months OR Both
Class 4	Fine: 1,000d6 gp OR Jail: 1 Year OR Both
Class 5	Fine: 5,000d6 gp OR Jail: d6 Years OR Both
Class 6	Fine: 10,000 d6 gp OR Jail: 5d6 Years OR Both OR Death
Class 7	Death

Crime and Punishment Tables can be adjusted based on the severity of punishment with a particular culture.

The Attempt

The thief (or DM) decides the Heist Category: Simple, Difficult, Extraordinary
Gear up! Calculate the modified Heist Chance of Success (based on stats, magic, race, Dexterity, etc.)
Determine time required to execute the heist
The DM determines the value of the loot, modified by the Heist Category
The DM determines if thief is Discovered (If a thief is discovered, roll on the Theft Failure table)
The PC rolls to determine their Heist Success or Failure
1. The DM determines the results
The PC decides on the disposition of goods acquired
Check whether the Thieves’ Guild becomes aware (20%) if the thief is not a member

Proficiencies

Below are few examples of relevant proficiencies.

Appraisal

This skill allows the character to make generally accurate (±10%) assessments of common objects, including items made of precious metals and gemstones. The character can also assess, to ±25%, the value of objects of art, tapestries, furniture, weapons, etc., provided a variety of these items are present in the game world. These assessments require no proficiency checks and the DM can roll (d20 or d100) to determine the accuracy of the appraisal.

A character who passes a proficiency check will be able to identify a forgery of a valuable object, to make a very accurate assessment of the value of a common item (within 5%), or to make a general assessment of the worth of an uncommon item, including artifacts. The DM may wish to roll this check, and on a roll of 20 the character makes a wildly inaccurate assessment. Intelligence, 0 penalty.

Bribery

Successful Bribery includes understanding the appropriate target, the timing of the offer, the amount most likely to generate the desired reaction, whether the one receiving the bribe will keep his side of the bargain, and the best way to avoid drawing attention from witnesses. Bribery allows the thief to judge (75%) how much of a bribe is required. A successful proficiency check (or rolling under half of their Charisma score) will increase one Thief Function by 25% (generally improving the chance of Heist success by 5%). Failure indicates the bribe is inadequate or refused and makes the chance for success correspondingly more difficult. The character may be reported to the Watch (depending on the Encounter Reaction). Charisma, 0 Penalty.

The cost of a Bribe will vary depending on the Heist: Simple (d10 gp), Difficult (d10 gp × 3), Extraordinary (d10 × 10 gp). More than one Bribe can be attempted.

Disguise

Characters trained in Disguise can conceal their appearance through makeup and costuming. They can make themselves look like any general type of person of about the same height, age, weight, and race. A successful proficiency check indicates that the disguise is successful, while a failed roll means the attempt was too obvious in some way. If the task is more difficult—the character in disguise meets and talks with an acquaintance, for example—an additional proficiency check is required. A successful disguise will prevent follow-up from an Escape or being turned in.

Characters altering their sex, race, or size, must make successful proficiency checks with a –2 penalty for each category. Character may attempt to disguise themselves as a specific person, with a –10 penalty to the proficiency check. These modifiers are cumulative, thus, it is extremely difficult to disguise oneself as a specific person of another race or sex. Charisma, –6 penalty.

Forgery

This proficiency indicates a skill at creating false documents, mimicking the handwriting of others, and detecting forgeries. To forge a document (military orders, local decrees, etc.) where the handwriting is not specific to a person, the character needs only to have seen a similar document before. To forge a name, an autograph of that person is needed, and a proficiency check with a –2 penalty must be successfully rolled. To forge a longer document written in the hand of some particular person, a large sample of his handwriting is needed, with a –3 penalty to the check.

If the check succeeds, the work will pass examination by all except those intimately familiar with that handwriting or by those with the Forgery proficiency who examine the document carefully. If the check is failed, the forgery is detectable to anyone familiar with the type of document or handwriting—if they examine the document closely. If the die roll is a 20, the forgery is immediately detectable to anyone who normally handles such documents without close examination. It is important to note that the forger always thinks he has been successful; the DM rolls the character’s proficiency check in secret and the forger does not learn of a failure until it is too late. Dexterity, –1 penalty.

PCs caught after using Forgery on Extraordinary crimes add Forgery to their charges.

Ruse

Ruses are oddities to create distractions, such as hiring mourners to fake a funeral procession outside to benefit his Hide in Shadows approach, or poisoning the guard dogs’ meat so their reactions are sluggish for the Move Silently check. Like Bribery, the player selects a specific Thief Function to improve. A failed Ruse puts the guards on alert instead, decreasing the Thief Function value by the same amount.

The cost of a Ruse will vary depending on the difficulty of the Heist: Simple (d10 gp), Difficult (d10 × 3 gp), Extraordinary (d10 × 10 gp). Only one Ruse may be attempted per Heist. Intelligence, –2 Penalty.

Bibliography

TSR 2010, Players Handbook [1e], 1978. [Pick Pockets]
TSR 2011, Dungeon Masters Guide [1e], 1979. [Spying, Pick Pockets]
Thieves’ Guild: The Fantasy System. Gamelords, Ltd. 1984. [legal system]
TSR 9193, GAZ 1: The Grand Duchy of Karameikos [BECMI], 1987. [crime, Thieves’ Guild]
Dragon Magazine Issue 47, Leomund’s Tiny Hut: The Thief: A Special Look, March 1981.
Dragon Magazine Issue 104, Was it Worth the Risk: A DM’s Guide to Pick Pocketing Success, December 1985.
Polyhedron Issue 41, Arcana Academy: Adding to the Thief, May, 1988. [Infiltrate, Appraise, Streetwise, Ransack]
TSR 2114, The Castle Guide [2e], 1990. [bribery]
TSR 1071, Rules Cyclopedia [BECMI], 1991.
TSR 2010, Player’s Handbook [2e], 1995. [forgery, disguise]
TSR 2154, Player’s Option: Skills and Powers [2e], 1995. [forgery, appraisal, disguise]
TSR 2445, Defilers and Preservers: The Wizards of Athas [2e], 1996. [bribery]
Footprints Issue #2, What Have I Got in my Pocket? August 2004.
http://the-city-of-iron.blogspot.com/2011/11/pick-pockets-results-charts.html

Appendix A: Converted Spy Failure Table (Reference Only)

Dice	Score Result
01-35	Failure. There are many possible causes for basic failure: a lock could not be picked, residents arrived home unexpectedly, left tools at home, etc.
36-60	Alerted! Burglary attempt against same target will be 90% likely to result in failure, discovery, and imprisonment.
61-80	Arrested for trespassing.
81-95	Caught with the goods and arrested for burglary (and trespassing). Value of the goods determines punishment.
96-00	Arrested for evading capture and either destruction of property or resisting arrest (on top of burglary and trespassing). Value of goods determines punishment.

Naval Shipping in 1e

(Revised, for the most current version see the full Nautical article: https://dnd.sinister.net/1st-edition-naval-adventuring/ and Seafaring (PDF) )

In a sea-based campaign, talk will turn to shipping and trade. I’m not sure there’s a single area in the Dungeons & Dragons genre with more rules variation than ships and the sea (with the possible exception of unarmed combat). Ship names, size, hull points, movement, cargo, combat abilities, weather effects—all vary wildly. Most of those systems seemingly start from scratch and create another game within the game, instead of sticking to the core simplicity of 1st Edition. I tackled this in my blog post on naval adventuring, without discussing trade. As 1e has little information on trade, I borrow from other resources (primarily Gaz 9—the most detailed resource for naval trade). BECMI uses different standards for ships, so I’ve converted and simplified those stats for 1e. I’ve also created generic trade goods.

The PCs need only to find a ship, hire a crew, load a cargo, and sail to parts known (and unknown) for adventure and profit.

Ship

A small merchant ship of 25’-40’ with 6d6 hull points can be purchased for 5,000 gp, for a crew of 10 and a 5-ton capacity. A large merchant ship of 50’-80’ with 12d4 hull points can be purchased for 15,000 for a crew of 20 and a 15-ton capacity. Used vessels are available for 20%-70% the cost of a new one (d6 × 10%) + 10%, with additional costs of 20%–70% of a new ship’s cost to refit the vessel.

Repair and Upkeep

A vessel loses 10% of its speed and 1 hull point for each 1,000 miles sailed without maintenance. Ship maintenance costs 1 gp per 1,000 miles traveled per the ship’s maximum hull points. Maintenance takes one day for every 10 gp of expenses. As long as damage is less than half of a ship’s hull value, repairs can be made at sea. If damage to the ship is more than half of its hull points, the ship must put into port for repairs. Dry docks reduce the time required for general maintenance by 20 to 80 percent.

A major overhaul at a dry dock is required every 10,000 miles or one year at sea. Dry docks cost 15 gp per day per 10 tons (± 50% based on port size). This repair can also be done by beaching the ship, taking twice the normal time at additional risk to ship and crew.

Crew

Crewmen must be of the sort needed for the vessel and the waters it is to sojourn in. Sailors cost the same as heavy infantry soldiers (2 gp per month) and fight as light infantry. They never wear armor but will use almost any sort of weapon furnished. Oarsmen are considered to be primarily sailor-soldiers; they cost 5 gp per month, wear any sort of armor furnished, and use shields and all sorts of weapons. Marines are simply soldiers aboard ship; they cost 3 gp per month and otherwise have armor and weapons of heavy foot as furnished. More experienced crew earn 50% more for each additional level of skill/experience.

For every 20 crewmen there must be one lieutenant and two mates. Mates conform to specifications of sergeants and cost 30 gp per month. A lieutenant can command as many decades of troops as he or she has levels. A captain can command as many scores of sailors as he or she has levels. The level of the captain also dictates the number of lieutenants which can be commanded. The cost for captains and lieutenants are 100 gp per month per level.

Employment of captain and crew is a matter of offer and acceptance. There is of course always the press gang option for gaining crew: 2–16 burly sailors or soldiers armed with swords but wielding clubs. Outnumbered or incapacitated citizens may be shanghaied onto the ship (with appropriate ramifications for skill and morale).

The bulk of a crew’s pay is in shares of the ship’s profits as well as a share of any prize or treasure taken at sea. ~50% is the traditional share of the profits (and all of the losses) for ship owners, with the remainder paid out to the ship’s crew. For any crew, the master captain gets a 25% share, each lieutenant gets 5%, each mate 1%, and the crew share 5% between them. The remainder goes to the ship owners.

Cargo

Merchant Guilds

In a merchant sailor’s guild, roughly 50% of the cargo carried is transported for hire. A variable amount is charged, based on volume, weight, and value of goods. 40% of those shipping fees go to the ship’s crew as shares (the remainder goes to the Guild). About 20% of guild shipping is carrying goods on consignment, with 10-40% of the profit goes to the ship’s crew. About 30% of guild shipping is speculative cargo bought and sold by the captains themselves, with 80% of the profit going to the ship’s crew as shares.

Buying Cargo

Depending on the size of the port, one or more different goods will be available. While there could be a complicated listing of specific cargos available and demanded at each port (wine, cotton, fish, etc.), a simpler system defines generic cargo as the associated components: value, distance, demand. These basic components can be used to determine profit for any shipping venture.

Ship tonnage is a measure of the cargo-carrying capacity of a ship. Good availability can be calculated on the basis of the number of available “loads” of goods, defining one load as a half-ton of goods. Considering the load capacity for carts and wagons listed in WSG, one cart can carry one load, or two loads per wagon (a large wagon with many horses can carry four loads). A 10-ton ship can therefore carry 20 loads of goods.

Merchants in port will buy and sell cargo. Depending on port size, there will be d6 ± 2 merchants interested in transacting with the PCs (modified by the PCs Charisma Reaction Adjustment). Merchants take d4 weeks to arrive; one half of the merchants appear the first week in port, one quarter the 2nd week, and the remainder at 1 per week. Each merchant can deliver a varying quantity of goods.

To determine the potential profits, first determine the Base Price of the available good:

Per load (d10): Low (1-3: 50 gp), Medium (4-7: 100 gp), High (8-9: 150 gp), Precious (10: 500 – 1,000 gp^1,2)

¹The suggested value for monsters is 100 gp / HD, times 10 for each special or exceptional ability.
²10% of all Precious cargos will be worth 1,000-10,000 gp

To calculate the number of loads available from the particular merchant, roll 2d8, then subtract the previous roll for the Base Price, and modify ± 2 based on the port size.

Selling Cargo

Merchant interest at the destination is calculated similarly to the port of origin. The Sale Price at the destination is determined using the Base Price Adjustment Table, adjusting the roll for distance hauled, demand, port size, and value of the goods. Roll 3d6, modified by:

Distance: Short (< 50 miles, -2 adjustment), Medium (< 500 miles, 0), Long (6, > 500 miles, +2 adjustment)
Demand (d6 modified ±1 with a Trade proficiency check): Low (1–2, -2 adjustment), Average (3–5, 0), High (6, +2 adjustment)
Port Size: ± 1
Bargaining proficiency check: ± 2
Precious goods: -2

Base Sale Adjustment Table (3d6)
3	30 percent
4	40 percent
…	…
16	160 percent
17	180 percent
18	200 percent
19	300 percent
20	400 percent

Other Cargo

There is a 5% chance per port that a NPC will offer to hire a vessel for d12 cargo loads of goods to another destination. This chance increases by 25% if the crew actively solicits such work. A shipper is typically charged 40 gp per ton (two loads) of cargo space per 500 miles, with a minimum fee of 100 gp, with no requirement to fill the hold. Normally half the payment is made in advance, and the remainder paid by the shipper’s agent upon arrival. Bonuses for early delivery and hazardous travel conditions are negotiable.

A ship can accommodate 20% more people than the standard crew complement. There are typically 2d4 – d4 passengers seeking passage at any port, ± 2 depending on port size at both port of origin and destination. Passengers are usually charged 20 gp per 500 miles traveled. There is also a 5% chance per port visited that one or more passengers travelling together want to hire a ship to go to a destination of their choice. If this occurs, they desire to sail to the most remote port within 2d20 × 100 miles. If passengers hire a ship to go to the destination of their choice, they pay as if they shipped enough to fill the cargo hold at 40 gp per ton of cargo space for each 500 miles, with a minimum fee is 100 gp. A round-trip fee can be charged if there is no possibility of cargo at the destination.

Unloading Cargo

Cargo cannot be unloaded until inspected by Customs. Customs inspectors normally board within d6 hours. In a busy harbor this could be as long as d20 hours. Customs officials generally have an Appraisal skill of 10 + d8. If a failure is on an odd number, the evaluation is low. The appraisal is off by 5% times the amount of failure.

After evaluating a cargo the customs inspector assess a tax which can range from 1% to 100% of the goods’ determined value, with an average customs fee of 2d10 percent.

At a dock, five crew can unload one load of cargo per hour during daylight with reasonable weather conditions (provided the cargo is not particularly awkward). Adverse conditions can double or triple that time. Loading the ship takes 50% longer as the cargo must be carefully stowed and secured. If dock workers are available they can be hired for 2 sp per hour.

Moving cargo to the shore in smaller boats increases loading and unloading time. At anchorage, it takes 75% longer to offload to a dock (one long boat required per five crew), and 150% longer if unloading to a beach. Rowing a loaded jolly boat through the surf additionally requires a Small Craft proficiency check for each round trip.

Setting Sail

Navigation

The Navigation skill is required for safe and accurate sea travel. Navigation checks are made for each week of travel. When a Navigation roll fails, a ship goes off course or becomes lost at sea. After a storm, a successful Navigation check pinpoints the ship’s current location and heading. Any time the ship encounters fog or overcast skies, a failed Navigation check will cause the ship will drift to a new heading, turning one hex facing for each point the roll was failed, and delaying travel appropriately.

Ships which do not have the appropriate charts are at risk when they navigate, especially if the vessel travels out of sight of land. Navigation rolls without the correct sea charts suffer a – 2 penalty. The chance to find the proper chart is 75%, adjusted for the size of port. The cost is 2d12 gp, also adjusted for port size. The chance of finding a chart is reduced by 10% for every 500 miles distant, and the cost increased by 5%. One chart is needed for every 1,000 miles traveled.

Supplies

The crew require one barrel of water per week per five crew. Iron rations for the crew cost 3.5 gp per week per five crew (2 sp per day per crew). A small sailing ship can carry one month’s worth of food and water, a large sailing ship 2–3 months. The space taken up by crew provisions does not normally affect the ship’s cargo space. however, additional supplies can be taken on: two weeks of additional food and water for five crew equals one “load,” (discussed later) and costs 9 gp. Once the crew has purchased additional water barrels, the future cost is reduced to 7 gp per week as long as they have a supply of fresh water.

A crew living on iron rations for more than a month becomes susceptible to scurvy (and other vitamin-related diseases). 10% of the crew will be affected by scurvy for each week the crew goes without fresh food. Those with scurvy lose one point of Constitution and Strength each week until either reaches zero, and the crew member dies. Those points are regains at a rate of three for each for each week with fresh food. Eating edible cargo reduces the cargo value by 10% per week that the cargo is eaten.

In dire straits the crew can fish. On the sea lanes or high seas there is only a 10% chance per week to net enough fish to feed the crew, increasing to 50% when within 100 miles of the coast.

Docking

There are a number of port fees that are the cost of doing business. Most ports charge a port entrance fee of 10-20 gp (depending on port size). It is possible to find a moorage berth 80 percent of the time. Ships that cannot find a berth may anchor in the harbor at a distance from the docks and quays. Moorage costs 1 gp per day for each hull point, or a flat 5 gp per day to anchor in harbor.

Representatives of the harbor master visit newly arrived vessels to assess docking and other service fees. When an arriving vessel is inspected, the harbor master asks its port of origin and the next destination. This information is posted at the port authority office. The representatives have the authority to quarantine or turn away undesirable ships. They can also require or provide pilots, required to navigate in and out of difficult harbors for a 10-60 gp flat fee. They can also provide towage at a cost of 1 gp per hull point, required for large ships through congested harbors.

Port agents can be used as middlemen to ease process of the buying and selling of cargo. They have Appraisal and Bargaining skills of 10 + d8 + a d6-1 bonus. They make 2d10 + 5% of the sale profits or purchase, but remove the requirement for an available merchant at the cost of one level of demand.

Bibliography

TSR 2011, Dungeon Masters Guide, 1979 (pp. 29-34, 53-55).

TSR 2020, Wilderness Survival Guide, 1986 (pp. 33).

TSR 9236, Gaz 9: The Minrothad Guilds, 1988 (pp. 12-14, 23-41).

TSR 1071, Rules Cyclopedia, 1991 (p. 70-74).

TSR 9346, Pirates of the Fallen Stars, 1992.

Most current version: Seafaring (PDF)

Nautical Adventuring

(This article has been updated to incorporate later posts on similar topics, to get everything all in one place). For the absolute most current version, see: Seafaring (PDF)

Last updated: 171201 … 210417

Overview

Few areas in the Dungeons & Dragons rules genre have more variation than ships and the sea (with the possible exception of unarmed combat). Ship names, size, hull points, movement, cargo, combat abilities, weather effects—all vary wildly across editions and expansions. Most editions start from scratch with complicated systems, creating another game within the game. At the same time core 1st Edition is lacking many specifics. I want something detailed yet simple: What happens during inclement weather? How long until ships engage? When will a ship sink?

Starting with ship-based combat, I surveyed many D&D resources and board games and, finding nothing I wanted, started my own detailed system. Then I realized something—creating a detailed nautical combat system means players would have to learn an entirely new game. Perhaps a game that includes AD&D characters, but still, not playing AD&D. I just needed dice to answer simple questions:

Can the players encounter/escape a seafaring foe
What happens when a seafaring foe is at range
How long does it take a seafaring foe to close
What happens while two ships close with each other
What factors might affect those questions (when I wanted to use them)

Borrowing from the resources available, I consolidated and organized AD&D rules scattered far and wide, filling in gaps from other sources. Proficiencies allow player agency. For critical life-or-death moments, tables provide granularity, but the generalities are treated, well, more generally.

In a sea-based campaign, talk will also eventually turn to shipping and trade. As 1e has little information on trade, I borrow from other resources (especially Gaz 9—the most detailed resource for trade at sea). Yet instead of a detailed, world-based goods system, generic goods permit trade without complexity. The PCs need only acquire (or hire) a ship, hire a crew, load cargo, and sail to parts known (and unknown) for adventure and profit.

Ships

Ship speeds are expressed as: Normal Sail (Maximum Sail)/ Normal Oar (Maximum Oar), Normal Daily Movement Sailed/ Normal Daily Movement Rowed. Maximum Sail is based on a Strong Breeze. Maximum Oar is only possible for periods of 30 minutes. *Note that sailing ships on the open ocean can sail day and night, moving twice their normal movement.

Raft: A simple craft constructed from logs lashed together to form an awkward floating platform. Maximum size is 30’ × 40’. Capacity: 10,000 cn / 100 ft². Hull value: 5. Crew: 1 / 100 ft². Characters can build their own raft if wood is available-this takes d3 days / 100 ft² with a capacity: 5,000 cn / 100 ft². 30% Seaworthy. Move: 3″/3″, 12 miles. Cost: 10’ × 10’, 50 gp.

Rowboat (canoe, skiff): Length 8’-20’, width 2’-4’. Capacity: 2,000-4,000 cn. Hull value: 1-4. This vessel can have a crew of 2-10 people, depending on size. Rowboats do not function well in breezes above 19 mph. 35% Seaworthy. Move: 6″(9″)/3″(6″), 18/9 miles. Cost: 75 gp.

Lifeboat: The ship’s lifeboat is designed for survival and has a collapsible mast. The length is 20’, beam is 4’-5’, and draft of 1’-2’. Capacity: 15,000 cn. Hull value: 1-4. Stored on-board typically is one week’s iron rations for 10 people. Small ships usually carry one or two lifeboats. Large ships carry three or four. A lifeboat carried onboard has a capacity of 5,000 cn cargo in addition to crew. It takes a turn to launch or load a lifeboat. 55% Seaworthy. Move: 6″(9″)/3″(6″), 18/9 miles. Cost: 150 gp.

Outrigger: Outriggers are fairly seaworthy, yet simple to build. The longer versions can easily make a transoceanic voyage. Average of 30′ with a beam of 16′, and a draft of ½ foot (from 20′ to 80′ long). Capacity: 5,000-20,000 cn. Hull Value: 4-8 Standard crew: 6/3/1 (up to 20 based on size). 70% Seaworthy. Move: 6″/3″, 24/18 miles. Cost: 75+ gp, build time 1 week.

Galleys are long, slim oared ships, generally used for travel along the coast. Galleys beach at night, since supplies and sleeping accommodations are very limited. Stepping/Unstepping masts is done only on galleys and longships. 10 crew accomplish the task in 3 turns.

Galley, Small (hemiolia): Built for coastal and lake use. The length is 60’-100’, beam is 10’-15’, and draft is 2’-3’. Capacity: 20,000 cn. Hull value: 2d6. Standard crew: 60 rowers, 10 sailors, 20 marines, 1 captain. This ship can have a ram (hull damage d4+2 × 3) and two light catapults. 40% Seaworthy. Move: 18″(27″)/15″/(24″), 50/30 miles. Cost: 10,000 gp.

Galley, Large (dromond): Designed for oceans and large lakes. The length is 120’-150’, beam is 15’-20’, and draft is 3’. Capacity: 40,000 cn. Hull Value: 4d4. Standard crew: 180 rowers, 20 sailors, 50 marines, 1 captain. It has a single mast with a square sail. Although it boasts one or two masts and triangular sails, the main power comes from the 100 oars, 50 to a side. These oars are divided into an upper and lower bank, with one man per oar on the lower bank and three men on the upper bank. It can have a ram (damage d6+3 × 3) and two light catapults. 45% Seaworthy. Move: 12″(21″)/12″(24″), 50^*/30 miles. Cost: 25,000 gp.

Galley, War (cataphract): This large, two-masted galley is designed for combat. The length is 120’-150’, the beam is 20’-30’, and draft is 4’-6’. Capacity: 60,000 cn. Hull Value: 4d4+8. Standard crew: 300 rowers, 30 sailors, 75 marines, 1 captain. This ship always has a ram (damage d6+4 × 3), and the deck above the rowers has two towers (providing a +3 AC bonus), each 10’-20’ square, height 15’-20’, and can have up to three light catapults. 45% Seaworthy. Move: 12″/6″, 36^*/12 miles. Cost: 50,000 gp.

Longship (drakkar): This ship, a square-sailed, oared galley having a single mast that can be unstepped, is designed for river, ocean, or coastal use. It is fairly seaworthy and can sail across the open sea. The length is 60’-80’, beam is 10’-15’, and the draft is 2’-3’. Capacity: 40,000 cn. Hull Value: 2-16. Standard crew: 75 sailors (acting as rowers and marines), 1 captain. 50 rowers are needed for full speed. No ram. 60% Seaworthy. Move: 15″/9″(18″), 45^*/18 miles. Cost: 15,000 gp.

Sailing Boat (fishing): A small single-masted craft, designed for lake or coastal use. The length is 15’-45’, beam is 5’-15’, and the draft is 3’-8’. Capacity: 20,000 cn. Hull Value: 3-24. Minimum crew: 1 sailor; additional crew and captain may be hired. 70% Seaworthy. Move: 15″(21″)/2″(3″), 60^*/10 miles. Cost: 2,000 gp.

Sailing Ship, Small (knarr, coaster): The small sailing ship has but a single mast and a square sail. There is at best only a small stern castle. In times of poor wind, a few oars at the bow and stern can provide more power. Its flat bottom makes it useful for sailing up rivers and estuaries, and it can be beached easily. The length is 60’-80’, beam is 20’-30, and draft is 5’-8’. Capacity: 100,000 cn. Hull Value: 6-36. Standard crew: 10 sailors, 1 captain. It can support one ballista. 65% Seaworthy. Move: 15″(21″)/2″(3″), 50^*/20 miles. Cost: 5,000 gp.

Sailing Ship, Large (cog): This is a 2-3 masted ship with one or more decks. There is normally one deck and fore- and sterncastle. The length is 100’-150’, beam is 25’-30’, and the draft is 10’-12’. Capacity: 300,000 cn. Hull Value: 12-48. Standard crew: 20 sailors, 1 captain. The bow and stern are raised “castles” for better field of fire. It can support up to two artillery (ballistae or light catapults). 65%-70% Seaworthy. Move: 9″(15″)/1″(2″), 35^*/15 miles. Cost: 15,000 gp.

Sailing Ship, Troop Transport: Identical in size to the large sailing ship, this ship is designed to carry people. The capacity is double that of a large sailing ship. This vessel often has special modifications such as a hatch cut into the side for loading horses and other animals. Capacity: 600,000 cn. Hull Value: 16-56. Standard crew: 20 sailors, 1 captain, 100 marines. 60% Seaworthy. Move: 12″(15″)/0″, 50^*/0 miles. Cost: 22,500 gp.

Sailing Ship, Warship (nao, carrack): Very similar to a large sailing ship, these vessels tend to be fast, but less seaworthy. The warship has three masts, the length is 70’-100’, beam is 15’-25’, and the draft is 12’. Capacity: 100,000 cn. Hull Value: 7-42. Standard crew: 20 sailors, 1 captain, 50 marines. The ship can support up to four artillery (max. 2 catapults). The crew of a warship tends to be 2 or 3 men to work each ballista, 3 or 4 men to handle the catapult, and the rest to main the sails. It is possible to have 100 or more men on board, but because of the shortage of space for food and fresh water, the number is usually considerably less. 60% Seaworthy. Move: 12″(18″)/2″(3″), 50^*/20 miles. Cost: 20,000 gp.

Ship Quality

Ships have four quality classifications (DRMG 107):

Unseaworthy: If rats scurry in droves down the ship’s gangplank prior to departure, it’s probably unseaworthy. In high winds, unseaworthy ships take hull damage in addition to the usual chances for a catastrophe: 1-2 points of hull damage in a strong gale, 1-3 points in a storm, and 1-6 points in a hurricane. Unseaworthy ships are capable of only 75% normal speed, and cost 10% to 30% below normal ship price.

Average: The normal quality of seagoing ships. They have approximately normal speed, costs, and capsizing chances.

Good: These ships are built with time and care. Good quality ships often serve as the flagship of a small nation’s fleet or command vessels of a larger nation’s fleet. They have -10% to any capsize and wind damage results percentages. These ships cost twice the normal price and will rarely be available for sale.

Excellent: The best ships are of excellent quality, designed by experts, built by masters, and are never available for sale, although they make a great prize in a naval battle. An excellent vessel serves as the flagship of a large seafaring nation’s navy. They have only a 5% chance to capsize in a storm (a 15% chance in a hurricane) and take -30% to their wind damage percentage. They also speed through the water at +10%.

Used vessels are available for 20%-70% the cost of a new one, with additional costs of 20%–70% of a new ship’s cost to refit the vessel.

Ship Movement

On the open ocean, vessels can sail all day and all night long, doubling their normal movement. 1 mph is roughly 3″. To simulate the effects of currents and winds on long voyages, reduce the overall movement rate by d4 x 5%.

Ships manned by less than their full complement (a skeleton crew) cannot exceed 2/3 of their normal movement rate. A ship with less than half the required crew is crippled and mostly drifts with the winds and current, also suffering a -2 penalty on all checks. Damaged ships reduce speed by 10% for each 10% damage.

Wet canvas holds the wind better; sails drenched with water improve speed by 5-10%.

(Optional): The movement rates for normal sail assume that the craft is being moved in the direction of the wind, and that the wind is blowing between 20 and 30 miles per hour. Subtract 1″ (one mile per half-day or 10 feet per round) for each 10 miles per hour of wind speed less than 20, and add 2″ for each 10 miles per hour greater than 30. A vessel cannot be successfully sailed if the wind is less than 5 miles per hour.

(Optional): The rate for maximum sail applies if a vessel is moving at right angles to the wind, with modifiers for wind speeds less than 20 or greater than 30 miles per hour. A vessel being sailed into the wind has its normal sail rate reduced by 3″ for each 10 mph of wind speed, to a minimum of 1″ (1 mile per eight hours or 1″/round) in any case.

Maneuverability

Watercraft turn similar to Aerial Movement at 30° / 3″. Any watercraft wanting to turn must first let her momentum carry her at least twice her length before such a procedure may begin. For every 10″ moved an oared ship being rowed may turn up to 45°. Galleys (and other oared vessels) are able to pivot 180° if they are dead still in the water. Sailed craft must be underway or facing into the wind to turn, and can safely turn up to 30° per round for every 12″ of sailed movement⁶. For sailed craft, turning directly away from the wind can increase speed up to 3″. Turning directly into the wind will decrease speed by 3″. Small craft can turn 180° in a round.

A ship can attempt to turn Hard to Port/Starboard , turning up to 90° by the end of the round, with a successful Piloting check. This check will be at a -10 penalty if the ship is at full speed, -6 at 75%, and -3 at 50%. On a failed check the ship cannot turn. If the turn was into the wind, a failed check automatically brings the ship “in irons”, otherwise a second Piloting check determines that status.

A ship can attempt to Heave To each round, decreasing movement by half (minimum 1″), with a successful Ship (Sailing) check. On a failed check, the ship does not decelerate. When deceleration reduces speed to 0″, the ship will continue forward another d4 × 3″ until it reaches a complete stop.

Weighing Anchor Table

Accelerate from standing to normal speed
Oared craft	1 round
Small craft	2 rounds
Barge, Small	2 rounds
Galley, Small	3 rounds
Galley, Large	6 rounds
Merchant ship, Small	5 rounds
Merchant ship, Large/Warship	1 turn
Other actions
Heave to	2-8 rounds
Get under way	1-6 turns
Raise anchor	3-18 rounds
In irons (see Appendix)	5-30 rounds
Launch john boat	1 turn

Rowing

Exhaustion will occur after the crew has rowed at their normal speed for 8-10 hours or at maximum speed for 30 minutes. PCs rowing a small vessel, such as a fishing vessel or skiff, can row for a number of hours equal to one-half their Constitution (rounded up). Each extra hour requires a Constitution check, but lose one Constitution point for each addition hour (recovered at the rate of one per full hour of rest).

A Strength check can increase the boat’s movement by one-third each 5 rounds (absolute maximum 3 turns). Once a character fails a check, they cannot attempt to increase their speed again until they have rested.

Navigation

Ships which do not have the appropriate charts are at risk when they navigate, especially if the vessel travels out of sight of land. The chance to find a proper chart is 65% adjusted ± 30% for the size of port, with a cost of 2d12 gp, also adjusted for port size (± 8 gp). For every 500 miles distant, the chance of finding a chart is reduced by 10%, and the cost increased by 5%. A standard chart covers 1,000 miles (assuming 500 miles from point of purchase).

To determine the accuracy of a course, plot the route between point of departure and destination, checking daily by rolling d20 minus the Navigator’s (modified) proficiency score (or 0 if no one is proficient) for the Navigation result. A successful check will identify the ship’s location within one mile (the accuracy of a sextant). When a Navigation result is greater than 0, a ship goes off course or becomes lost at sea. Multiply the result by 5%; that is the percentage the course is in error. Only one roll may be made for a vessel each day, using the best navigation skill aboard.

The navigation roll is subject to the following modifiers:

Two or more navigators in consort: -3
No appropriate charts +2
Strong breeze +2
Ship is old or worn (unseaworthy) +2
Ship sailing against strong current +3
Ship sailing against moderate current +1
Gale +5
Storm or greater force winds +10

The following technological modifiers can be used:

Primitive: Out of sight of landmarks +6
^*Rudimentary technology with Light cloud cover +2
^*Rudimentary technology with Heavy cloud cover +5

^*Rudimentary technology include compass, cross-staff, astrolabe

Additional navigation checks are made in the following circumstances:

After every week of travel with brisk or strong winds, the vessel is likely to drift downwind of its course. A successful Navigation check keeps it on course. Failure means the ship has moved one hex downwind of its former position.
After a storm, a successful Navigation check pinpoints the ship’s current location and heading. If the ship was already off course at the start of the storm, the navigator’s new position estimate is based on where he thought the ship was.
Any time the ship encounters fog or overcast skies, a failed Navigation check will cause the ship will drift to a new heading, turning one hex facing for every 2 points the roll was failed, and delaying travel appropriately. When the weather clears, another check can be made to get back on course.

Hazards

Hazards include sailing near reefs or other waterborne obstacles. For every five miles of hazard movement a Piloting roll is required (identical to the Navigation roll), subject to the following modifiers):

Two or more pilots in consort -3
Lighthouse in area -5
No appropriate charts +2
Ship is unseaworthy +2
Strong breeze +2
Ship sailing against strong current +3
Light fog +3
Strong gale +5
Heavy fog (¼ mile visibility) +6
Storm or greater force winds +10

If the ship misses the Piloting roll, it takes damage according to the severity of the hazard and the amount by which the piloting roll was missed (refer to the effect on the Hull Burn table):

Hazard Table

Hazard	Missed by	Damage
Minor	1-4	1 hull damage	Light
	5-7	2-4 hull damage	Light to Moderate
	8-20	3-6 hull damage	Moderate
Major	1-2	1 hull damage	Light
	3-4	2-4 hull damage	Light to Moderate
	5-20	4-8 hull damage	Moderate to Heavy
Critical	1-2	2-4 hull damage	Light to Moderate
	3-4	3-6 hull damage	Moderate
	5-7	4-8 hull damage	Moderate to Heavy
	8-20	5-10 hull damage	Heavy

Ship Damage

Hull Value

A ship’s ability to remain afloat is represented by its hull value. As a general rule of thumb, a new ship from a good shipyard will have the maximum listed hull value. A new ship from a less-reliable shipyard, or a well-maintained older ship will have somewhat fewer. A scurvy river barge that’s taking on water will have the lowest possible hull value.

Hull damage caused by the various artillery engines, as well as that caused by various monsters and spells, is determined by using the SIEGE ATTACK VALUES in the DMG (extended here as an Appendix). Unless noted otherwise, giant sea creatures and appropriate magic attacks inflict 1 point of hull damage for every full 10 points of damage. Attacks that force a ship to make a saving throw (such as a Disintegrate spell cast on the ship) use the Item Saving Throw Chart (DMG, p. 39) for determining results, where most ships are Thick Wood. When relevant, a hole made in the ship has a diameter (in inches) equal to the damage caused by the attack. For example, a strike inflicting 6 points of hull damage would tear a 6-inch hole.

Each 10% of hull damage slows the ship by 10%. Each 10% loss of rowers reduces a ship’s rowed speed by 10%. When a ship has suffered 75% of its hull value in damage, the ship is dead in the water; it cannot move under its own power until at least makeshift repairs are made (see Repair). When a ship is damaged 90%, violent wave action can break the weakened structure, inflicting additional damage: squall/storm, 1 hull damage / day; hurricane, 1-2 hull damage / day.

A ship damaged to 90% or receiving a Leaking Critical Hit will begin to leak. A leaking ship will sink in 2d10 turns unless two crewmen are dedicated to bailing. If this critical is suffered again, the leaks become more severe. As the water flows in faster, for each additional Critical Hit five more crewmen must be assigned to keeping the vessel afloat.

If a ship’s hull value is reduced to zero, repairs are no longer possible. The ship cannot use ship-mounted weapons and on 4 in 6 the ship weapons are destroyed. The ship will sink to the waterline in d10 rounds and d12 turns later sink beneath the sea (rowboats will sink in d10 rounds). When the ship sinks, every character aboard must make a Saving Throw vs. Death or be sucked down with the ship. For this reason, most characters will try to abandon ship, entering the water first to avoid being sucked into the undertow.

Repair

All ships are built of wood. Wooden pegs and metal nails join the timbers of a ship. Bronze nails are favored over iron because they better resist salt-water corrosion. Seams are caulked and fixed with wax and/or tar. Waterproofing, often mixed with paint, is melted and brushed onto the outer planking.

For damage less than half of a ship’s hull value, temporary repairs can be made at sea; the remainder requires the ship put into port for repairs. Repairs are not possible during battles, gales, or storms.

While the ship is idle, a repair crew of ten can repair one point of hull damage for each hour of work.⁴ These repairs are makeshift however, and will fall apart in d6 days.

In most civilized areas, one point of hull damage can be permanently repaired at a cost of 100 gp / day by a crew of ten trained workers in port. Poor (or cheap) characters can repair ships themselves; a crew of five individuals, with the correct materials and in safe harbor, can repair one point of hull damage per week. Materials can be acquired (at an approximate cost of 50 gp of material per point of hull damage, and one load of cargo space) or just landing at a vacant stand of timber and taking what is needed. Such repairs are almost as good as the expensive ones provided that at least one member of the crew has the Shipwright or Ship Carpentry proficiency (Ship Carpentry can repair only half of the damage and then only for damage ≤ half of the hull value). A successful proficiency check must be made for each such improvised repair to succeed; otherwise the repair is only temporary (d6 weeks).

Dry docks cost 5 gp per day per hull point¹ (± 50% based on port size), but reduces the time required for general maintenance or repairs by 20 to 80 percent.

Upkeep

Ships require port maintenance every six months, as well as careening at the end of every year.⁵ Ship maintenance takes one day for every five of the ship’s maximum hull points, and costs 1 gp / the ship’s maximum hull value / day.¹ Maintenance can also be done by beaching the ship, taking twice the normal time with risk to ship and crew (hull damage and crew fatality for each point of proficiency failure). Failure to perform at least annual maintenance lowers the quality of the ship by one place, and one place further every six months thereafter.⁵ A vessel also loses 10% of its speed for each month sailed without required maintenance.

Capsizing

A small craft (i.e., large rowboat) is 25% likely to capsize in mild (< 15 mph winds) conditions, 35% likely to capsize in moderate (16-30 mph) conditions, increasing to 50% in Dangerous (21-50 mph) conditions, and 65% in Severe (> 50 mph) conditions, checked whenever a character enters or leaves the boat, or when deemed appropriate. If operated under sail, the chance of capsizing is 20% greater. A character with the Boating (or, where appropriate, Sailing) proficiency reduces the chance by 25%, and 20% more for each additional character with the Boating proficiency.

A capsized small craft will support a number of characters equal to twice its normal capacity; that is, up to eight characters can cluster around the sides of a capacity-4 rowboat and use the rowboat to keep from going under themselves. If this weight limit is exceeded, or if the weight is not evenly distributed, the craft will sink too far below the surface to be usable in this fashion.

If a ship capsizes, the ship sinks immediately and escape by boat is impossible. All crew must Save vs. Death or be trapped in the wreck and killed.

Sea monsters that attack by ramming also have a chance of capsizing a vessel, but only on their first successful ram,⁵ later successful rams cannot capsize the vessel. Very small boats suffer an additional 10% chance of being capsized, small vessels +5%, large vessels -5% and very large ships -10%.

Collision

A collision is not a gentle bump against the dock; what is meant here is two vessels crashing together at three-quarters to full speed. Unless a vessel is carrying a ram, this action isn’t ramming, it’s colliding. Each ship suffers 10%-60% of the hull value of the ship that collided with them and suffers a Ship Shaken Critical Hit.

A ship that runs on rocks or reefs takes Heavy hull damage (See the effect on the Hull Burn Table) every turn. On sand bars, it takes Moderate damage once; on mud banks, it takes no damage.

Fire

Fire is a great danger on shipboard, whether as a result of a critical hit, flaming pitch, or spells such as Fireball:

Fire Risk Table

Fire Risk	Hull Damage	Notes
10 flaming arrows	Check Hull Burn Table
Pitch (via catapult)^*	d6/turn
≥5 HD fireball	Check Hull Burn Table	10 HD checks HB Table twice. < 5 HD does only ½*HD Hull Damage.
≥8 HD Lightning	Check Hull Burn Table	HB Table roll at -3 (< 8 HD does ½*HD Hull Damage and no fire).
Fire Spell Lvl 3+	Check Hull Burn Table	25% chance of creating a blaze; if so, HB Table roll at -3.

^* Any flaming catapult missile landing on a ship should be immediately doused. Otherwise, it has a 75% chance of spreading out of control. 5 crew extinguish burning pitch in 3 turns, 10 crew in 2 turns, and 15 crew in 1 turn. Pitch will always burn for at least 1 turn. Pitch carries with it a 5% risk of catching the attacker on fire.

When a ship has a risk of fire, roll 3d6 to determine the ship damage:

Hull Burn (HB) Table (from Controlled Fires)

3d6	Hull Damage	Minimum Repair Outcome
3-7	1	Light (L)		Almost no damage.
8-10	2-4	Light Moderate (LM)	= 3L	Minor damage. No immediate repair needed.
11-13	3-6	Moderate (M)	= 2L + 1LM OR 2 LM	Minor repairs required to get underway (d4 hours).
14-15	4-8	Moderate Heavy (MH)	= 2M	Major repairs to get underway (min. d3 days).
16-18	5-10	Heavy (H)	= 2MH	Extensive repairs to get underway (min. d6 days).

Fire-inflicted hull damage from the first turn doubles on every subsequent turn if not contained. A fire can be extinguished by one person for each point of hull damage on the first turn, requiring one additional person for every subsequent round the fire burns. Each point of hull damage is considered one round of burning (i.e., 4 points of fire damage would take 4 crewmen to put out if they start immediately, 5 crewmen the next round). Attempts to put out fire take place after damage is applied to the ship.

Fire Burn Damage that equals or surpasses the Hull Value is considered a fire no longer under control, and the ship burns uncontrollably to the water line. Any fires magically fed and not countered due to time, lack of men, or capable magic-user have a 75% chance per turn of spreading out of control.

Direct attempts to set a ship ablaze may be undertaken only while aboard. This requires at least two flasks of oil or two cubic feet of dry combustible materials such as sacking, cloth, wool or wood kindling and still has only a 60% chance of successfully creating a blaze. Additional flasks of oil and combustibles will increase the chances by 10% for each extra flask of oil plus a further cubic foot of combustibles. It will take a full turn before such a fire takes hold, during which period it may be extinguished with a 15% chance for every person helping in the attempt. On the second turn after ignition the chance of successfully extinguishing the fire goes down to 10% per person involved; on the third turn the fire will be out of control and will burn the ship down to the waterline in a further turn.

Scuttling

Six man-sized creatures can decrease the hull value of a ship by d2/round (+1 round for each creature less than 6) if appropriately armed and damaging a specific point.

Attempts to hole a ship require the use of axes and/or similar implements. If damage is inflicted to one location equal to the ship’s hull points, the ship will begin to take on water and sink in d12 turns.

Crew

Crewmen must be of the sort needed for the waters (fresh vs. salt) and the type of vessel:

Small boats: river boat, sailing boat, canoe, ship’s lifeboat, raft
Galleys: small galley, large galley, war galley, longship
Sailing vessels: Large sailing ship, small sailing ship, troop transport

Sailors cost 2 gp per month. They never wear armor but will use almost any sort of weapon. When not slaves, oarsmen are considered to be primarily sailor-soldiers; they cost 5 gp per month, wear any sort of armor furnished, and use shields and all sorts of weapons. Marines are simply soldiers aboard ship; they cost 3 gp per month and otherwise have armor and weapons of heavy foot as furnished, with one sergeant per ten marines for 30 gp per month. More experienced crew earn 50% more for each additional level of skill/experience.

For every 20 crewmen there must be one lieutenant and two mates. Mates conform to specifications of sergeants. A lieutenant can command as many decades as he or she has levels. A captain can command as many lieutenants, and as many scores of sailors as he or she has levels. Captains and lieutenants cost 100 gp per month / level.

The bulk of a crew’s pay on a merchant ship is in shares of the ship’s profits as well as a share of any prize or treasure taken at sea. ~50% is the traditional share of the profits (and all of the losses) for ship owners, with the remainder paid out to the ship’s crew. For any crew, the master captain gets a 25% share, each lieutenant gets 5%, each mate 1%, and the crew share the remainder between them.

Crew normally expect three days of liberty (shore leave) each month, or become tired and argumentative, and lose morale. Employment of captain and crew is a matter of offer and acceptance (see Hirelings in the DMG). There is of course always the press gang option for gaining crew: 2–16 burly sailors or soldiers armed with swords but wielding clubs. Outnumbered or incapacitated citizens may be shanghaied onto the ship (with appropriate ramifications for skill and morale).

Supplies

Every five crew require one barrel of water per week. Iron rations cost 25 gp per week per five crew, but include dried fruit.² Sea rations of salted meat and hard tack cost only 7 gp per week per five crew (4 sp per day per crew³). A small sailing ship can carry one month’s worth of sea rations and water, a large sailing ship 2–3 months. The space taken up by base crew provisions does not affect the ship’s cargo space. Additional supplies can be taken on: two weeks of additional sea rations and water for five crew equals one “load” of cargo (discussed elsewhere) and costs 9 gp. Once the ship has additional water barrels, the future cost is reduced to 14 gp per week with a supply of fresh water.

A crew living on sea or iron rations for more than a month becomes susceptible to scurvy (and other vitamin-related diseases). 10% of the crew will be affected by scurvy for each additional week the crew goes without fresh food. Those with scurvy lose one point of Constitution and Strength each week until either reaches zero, and they die. Those points are regained at a rate of three for each week with fresh food. Eating edible cargo reduces the cargo value by 10% per week that the cargo is eaten.

Fishing

In dire straits the crew can fish, ceasing ship progress. On the sea lanes or high seas there is only a 10% chance per day to net enough fish to feed the crew for seven days (five days if unable to prevent spoilage), increasing to 50% within 100 miles of the coast.

Gear

Mariner’s armor: The most skilled tanners and armorers construct this special leather armor. It is not magical, but acts as if it were for swimming and diving purposes (equal to no armor). It is waterproof, as is normal leather. Cost varies according to region and economic conditions, but it is at least 20 gp, four times the cost of ordinary leather armor. It must be tailored to fit the individual and requires 30 days to construct.

Swimming

The base surface swimming speed is 1/3 the normal movement rate (twice that if unencumbered). For a swimmer moving beneath the surface of the water, the rate is reduced to 2/3 the base amount (rounded up). The base rate may be modified by one or more of the following factors:

Strength 16 or 17	+1″
Strength 18	+2″
Strength 18/01+	+3″
Swimming in light current	±1″ to ±3″
Swimming with strong current	±4″ to ±6″

Swimming will be impossible when encumbered with more than 20 pounds of equipment of any type (add or subtract 1 pound for each 100 gp worth of strength bonus or penalty), or in any type of metal armor, with the exception of magic armor. Any character wearing magic armor will be encumbered but can dog paddle at 1″/round. Although characters wearing heavier armors cannot swim, they can walk across the bottom at 1/3 their normal movement rate.

The base diving rate is 2″, doubled for a character moderately encumbered characters and tripled for heavily encumbered characters. The base surfacing rate is also 2″, doubled for unencumbered characters. Character floating to the surface rise at the rate of .5″/round.

Encumbrance

Enc.	Endurance	Speed	Diving	Surfacing
None	×2	×2	×1	×2
Light	×1	×1	×1	×1
Moderate	×½	×½	×2	×½
Heavy	×¼	×¼	×3	×¼
Severe	—	—	×3	—

Endurance

A character’s base swimming endurance in turns is equal to: total experience levels + current Constitution score. Only treading water doubles their endurance. Endurance also doubles for the unencumbered, and halves for the heavily encumbered. Each hour spent swimming causes a cumulative penalty of -1 to all attack rolls. A character regains three turns of endurance for every turn resting on shore.

A character may swim at high speed on the surface with a successful Strength check (vs. half the character’s normal Strength score), doubling their movement rate but reducing their endurance to 1/10 normal. After such an action (regardless of duration) the character must get out of the water to rest for as long as they spent swimming at high speed, regaining only one turn of endurance for every one turn of resting.

All this assumes calm water. If the waters are choppy, a Constitution check should be made every hour spent swimming, regardless of endurance. Rough seas can require more frequent checks; heavy seas or storms may require a check every round.

A character who has reached the end of their endurance must exit the water, or sink.

Drowning

DRMG 107: When a person swims in water for an extended length of time, there is a chance that the swimmer will not be able to maintain his buoyancy; then they will sink. Consult the chart below, treating the magical armors of ring mail, chain mail, and studded leather armor as non-magical leather, to determine at what interval a drowning check must be made.

Drowning Table

Encumbrance	Drowning Check Frequency
*No armor / unencumbered	2 hours
*At least 50 gp enc.	1 hour
*At least 100 gp enc.	½ hour
*At least 150 gp enc.	1 turn
*At least 200 gp enc.	5 rounds
Choppy seas	1 hour
Storm	1 turn
Cold water	1 turn or less (see below)

* Treat leather armor as 50 gp encumbrance. Magical leather is equal to no armor at all.

The base 25% chance for drowning is modified as follows:

Every previous drowning check made: +10%
Wearing leather or padded armor: +5%
Every 50 gp enc. on person: +2% (includes weapons, backpacks, and hard boots)
Salt water: -10%
Treading water (0″ movement): -15%
Calm water and/or weak current: -20%
Choppy water or moderate current: -0%
Rough water or strong current: +15%
Every level of sea-deity worshiper: -1 %/level
Buoying device: -5% to -50%
Storm / Winds above 35 mph (check every turn): +50%

Hypothermia

Exposure to cold waters increases the chance of drowning. A ring of warmth or similar magic item or spell will prevent hypothermia. Adjust the drowning roll as follows:

Water temperature below 60°F: + 10%, check as normal
Water temperature below 50°F: + 30%, check every turn
Water temperature below 40°F: + 60%, check every two rounds

Holding One’s Breath

All characters are able to hold their breath for one round, regardless of circumstances. A character can hold their breath underwater a number of rounds equal to ⅓ of their Constitution score. This assumes that the character has a chance to take a deep breath before submerging. If the character did not have a chance to fill their lungs with air before going under (or takes a momentary quick breath in combat), the time is cut in half (rounded up). If they engage in strenuous activity (such as combat), the time is also cut in half. These penalties are cumulative. Characters reduced to ≤ ⅓ of their normal movement due to encumbrance are always engaged in strenuous activity.

While attempting to hold their breath beyond this time, the character rolls a Constitution check each round. The first check has no modifiers, but each subsequent check suffers a -2 cumulative penalty. Once a check fails, the character runs out of air, and goes unconscious. If underwater and unconscious at the end of a round, the character’s HPs reduce to a virtual -10 (if not worse already).

Underwater Vision

Characters can see objects and movement up to 50′ away in fresh water and 100’ away in salt water. The depth limit of vision is the same as the distance limit: characters can see until they go below 50′ in fresh or 100′ in salt water; below this depth vision will be obscured. Use of a Light spell allows vision up to 30′ distance regardless of depth, or adds 10′ of vision to any distance shorter than 60′.

lnfravision and ultravision are useful underwater, with distance limits the same as dungeon settings. There are some problems, however: infravision users may become confused due to shifting currents and layers of different-temperature water, as water exchanges heat more slowly than air and therefore is of a less even temperature. Distance of ultravision is halved at 100′ depth and reduced to zero below 200’ as ultraviolet “light” does not penetrate beyond that depth in sufficient quantities for sight.

Seaweed or sea grass will reduce vision to 10′ or perhaps nil for those within it, depending on its density.

Combat

Visibility

On a clear day a 6′ tall character can see 3 miles to the horizon line. A character in a 60′ crow’s nest can see 9 miles. Any obstruction (such as an island) will provide cover which may reduce this distance. Land can be seen at a distance of 24 miles on a clear day. Ships can be identified (type, firepower, low or high in the water) at 300 yards on a clear day (or as little as 40 yards in dense fog).

Visibility Table

Maximum Visibility (Crow’s Nest)	Miles
Clear	9
Cloudy	3
Gale	2
Hurricane	1
Fog	1 or less

Sighting

When two ships enter visual range of one another, each ship makes a d20 roll each turn until it sees the other. Depending on heading, it is possible for one ship to see the other first and attempt to fade back into the horizon before being seen. This roll can also be used to indicate sighting land, large sea monsters (at the horizon), or other items of significance. Success is defined by the quality of the crew:

Ship Sighting Table

Crew Quality	d20
Landlubber	20
Green	16
Average	13
Trained	10
Crack	8

Range

A ship will normally first be spotted at maximum range. Normal range can vary based on visibility.

Ship Visibility Table

Distance	Range	Duration	Possible Actions
Distant	> 300 yards (max 9 miles)	d6 hours	Approach/ Evade
Normal	300 – 50 yards:	d6 turns	Approach/ Maintain/Withdraw, Spells, ship-to-ship weapons, missile weapons
Short	50 yards – Contact	d6 rounds	Approach/Maintain/Withdraw, Spells, missile weapons, Grapple/Ungrapple, Prepare to Shear/Ram
Boarding	Contact	1 round	Withdraw, Spells, missile weapons, Grapple/Ungrapple, Shear, Ram Board/ (unless Grappled),

Range changes are possible only every interval defined by Duration. Range increase/decrease will be evenly spread across the Duration.

Evasion

A crew spotting a distant ship can choose to evade:

Base chance of evading pursuit outdoors (d100)	80%
Pursued is faster	+10%
Pursued is slower	-20%
Original Positional Advantage (optional)*	+25% to -25%
Piloting Skill Check	+10%
Open water	-50%
Marsh	+10%
Light, daylight	-30%
Light, twilight	-10%
Light, moonlight	0%
Light, starlight	+20%
Light, dark night	+50%
Weather, cloudy day	+10%
Weather, gale	+20%
Weather, storm	+30%
Weather, fog	+50%
Ship Damage	-%hull damage

*Original positional advantage is determined by where the pursuer is in relation to the wind.

If Evasion is successful, the attacker has lost sight of the pursuing vessel and cannot attempt again until the following day, otherwise the two ships close from 30″ in d6 turns if pursuer is <= speed, or at rate of closure.

Once the pursuer closes to 30″, they have the opportunity to review their target. At that time the pursuer can choose to disengage. This flight is automatically successful if not pursued, otherwise they need to succeed on an Evasion roll in order to return to Distant range (taking 1 turn if the former target turns to pursue) and leading the now pursuer on a merry chase before potentially disappearing from sight in d6 hours if successfully evading a second time.

Ship-to-Ship

Crews can fire upon one another whenever within missile range. Hand missile weapons such as bows and crossbows can damage or kill crew but do no effective damage against the ship itself. No more archers can fire effectively than the ship’s base maximum crew.

Artillery

Armament on galleys ranges from a ram to ballistae; some of the larger galleys may even sport a catapult. Only longships, galleys, and sailed warships can mount catapults; ordinary sailing ships cannot. Typical armament for merchant ships includes at most a ballista.

A light catapult costs 150 gp. A ballista costs 75 gp. A catapult and 20 rounds of shot weigh 20,000 cn (1 load). A ballista and 20 bolts weigh 6,000 cn. A ballista bolt is 10 gp / bolt. Catapult stones are 20 gp, and are approximately 1’ in diameter. Pitch costs 25 gp and takes 3 turns to prepare.

	Range (Min/Max)^a	Damage (S/M, L, Hull)			Rate of Fire^b	Crew	Arc	Siege Defensive value	AC	Critical Hit
Ballista	1″/ 32″	2d6	3d6	–	¼-½	2-4	45°^c	2	4	20
Catapult, Light	15″/30″	2d10	3d4	4	¼	4	30°	4	4	20
Catapult, Heavy	18″/36″	2d12	4d4	6	¼	6	15°	6	0	19,20

^aThe -5 modifier for long range does not affect catapults or ballista.
^aIncendiary ammo (pitch) reduces range by 1/3, affects a 10’×10‘ area and causes d6 / turn of hull damage in addition to damage to the crew. All creatures within three feet of the impact and breaking point of the container missile must save versus poison or be splashed with the contents of the shattered container. Extinguishing the associated fire takes 3/2/1 turns with 5/10/15 crew.
^bRate of Fire can only be achieved with the requisite crew. If less than the requisite crew is available, RoF drops to at best 50% of normal, and for each crew member missing, the weapon takes one additional round to fire.
^cIt takes three rounds for a crew of four to reposition a ballista.

Ranged attacks on characters inside the crow’s nest are at -3 ‘to hit’ in addition to any other penalties. This reflects the defensive bonus from the 3’ high walls of the crow’s nest.

Hit Determination

The weapon crew chief’s level determines base THAC0. Default Lvl 4, THAC0 18 (potentially adjusted for crew rating). Artillery can be either aimed at the ship’s crew, artillery, or the ship itself. Galleys are AC 5, other ships are generally AC 0. Catapult targets are otherwise considered to be AC 0; ballista targets are considered to be AC 10. When any of the various siege machines (ballistae, catapults, etc.) fire missiles, target characters do not gain Dexterity bonus considerations to Armor Class. Adjust the base numbers to hit using the following table:

Target Movement
Stationary	+3
Movement Rate 3″-12″	-3
Movement Rate > 12″	-5
Target Size
Medium ship	+2
Large Ship	+4
Subsequent shots (if stationary)	+4
Subsequent shots (if moving, max +3)	+1
Weather
Calm	+1
Light to moderate breeze	0
Strong Breeze/Gale	-2
Storm	-4
Direct Fire (subsequent shots at stationary target, ballista/mangonel,skorpion)	+4

Critical Hits

If a ship received a Critical Hit, further damage is indicated:

d20	Result
1	Roll twice on this table
2-4	Deck Crew Casualty	One exposed crew member is struck and suffers the same damage as the ship.
5	Interior Crew Casualty	Same as Deck Crew Casualty, but everyone aboard is a potential target, including prisoners and the captain. This reflects not so much the effect of the missile itself, but shattered parts of the ship’s interior bouncing around during combat.
6-8	Ship Shaken	All characters not sitting or otherwise firmly tied down must make a Dexterity Check to maintain their balance or fall to the deck, disallowing any attacks or spell use that round. Characters in the rigging could fall.
9-10	Large Weapon Damaged	One large weapon (chosen randomly) is inoperable until repaired. Its crew is unharmed.
11-12	Sheared	Ship movement is reduced 50%, and 25% of the rowers are killed.
13	Fire!	See Fire.
14-15	Loss of Movement	The base move of the ship drops by 1″.
16	Leaking	The ship begins to leak as the timbers groan. Such a ship will sink in 2d10 + 10 rounds unless two crewmen are dedicated to bailing.
17-20	Hull Holed	The attack punches a hole in the ship where there was none before. A hole made in the ship has a diameter (in inches) equal to the damage caused by the attack. For example, a strike inflicting 60 points of damage would tear a five foot (60 inch) hole. The hole is below the waterline, and the ship will sink in d6*10 rounds.

Contact

Stopping a Ship

Aquatic attackers typically stop a vessel by snagging the hull with a large net (acting as a sea anchor), or by attaching two sea anchors—one to the rudder (ripping it out) and one to the side of the ship (making the ship turn in circles). The attackers may then attach more sea anchors at their leisure to stop the ship. Both of these methods work 50% of the time, and reduce speed by 50%.

Ram

Only oared ships can perform ramming maneuvers as sailing vessels do not possess sufficient maneuverability. Only galleys normally mount rams; Viking-type longships seldom carry them. A large or small galley may have a ram, a war galley always will. A ship may only attempt to ram once / turn. Before any battle in which ramming is intended, the mast must be previously unstopped and secured on deck; 10 crew accomplish this task in three turns.

Ramming must be done head-on at full speed, with the galley striking the target ship at a 60-90° angle.

When ramming, use the helmsman’s THAC0 against AC 8 to determine if the ramming is successful. The rammed ship suffers from 10% to 60% damage, and there is a 25% chance that it is holed below the waterline and will sink in 3-18 turns unless patched. A vessel rammed in the side loses 20% of its crew (15% must be rowers if the ship is oared). Patching a hole below the waterline requires five turns of work by ten men, and there is a 25% chance the job will not hold, requiring another five turns to replace.

If the ramming ship misses its target or reduces the opposing ship to 0 hull value (so that the opposing ship begins to break up), the ramming ship may continue its movement. Ship crews may grapple in the same round as a ram if so desired. If the ship strikes its target without destroying it or is locked or grappled with the target, its movement stops.

After successfully striking, the ramming ship must backwater immediately or risk either sinking with the ship it rammed or being boarded by her crew if the hole is above the water line. It may take d12 turns before the ship sinks (rowboats and small rafts are the only vessels that sink in less than a turn). Both ships automatically suffer a Ship Shaken Critical Hit.

A ship without a ram may nonetheless drive itself into an enemy, inflicting collision damage on both the attacker and victim (it may still be useful for huge ships facing rowboats)—see Collision.

It is possible for some monsters to make ramming attempts. A successful Save vs. Breath Weapon will reduce the damage by half. Gargantuan creatures take 1d6 points of damage per 20,000 cn. capacity (or fraction thereof) of an attacking ship (up to a maximum of 6d6).

Shear

A shearing attack is a close pass against an opposing ship with the intention of snapping oars to slow the ship’s speed. Shearing can only be attempted against oared craft. The attacking helmsman’s THAC0 against AC8 is used to determine success. A successful shearing attack will cause a Shearing Critical Hit (kill 50% of the rowers on that side of the opposing ship, and cause it to be dead in the water for three turns, thereafter moving at one-half speed maximum). If it has its oars sheared again it will remain powerless to move by rowing. Shearing attacks inflict no damage on the target ship’s hull, but if a 20 is rolled for the attack, an additional Critical Hit results applies.

Damaging the Rigging and Sails

Attacks can be made on a ship’s targeting the rigging and sails. Each 10% of the ship’s hull points damage done to the sails and rigging will reduce the ship’s movement by 10%. No permanent damage is done to the ship.

Grapple

Grappling may be attempted each round that ships are adjacent (50’ or less). There is a 100% chance of success if both crews desire that outcome, otherwise success is indicated by a 1-2 on a d6, while a 3-6 means the other crew successfully casts the grappling lines free. Once a ship is grappled, there is a 25% chance of freeing the ship each round (assuming the crew are not otherwise occupied). It requires only one man to grapple or cut a grapple. Grappled ships immediately lose all maneuvering, and have their Movement reduce to 0″ in 5 rounds. Once grappled, vessels may be readily boarded.

In addition to the classic grappling hook, several devices were introduced to assist in boarding. The corvus was a bridge 36’ long and 4’ wide carried upright in the bow on a swivel mount. The far end had several spikes on the bottom. When an enemy galley was close enough, the lines holding it up were cut, allowing it to fall and spike itself to the enemy galley. The harpax was an iron-bound ballista missile with several lines attached to a winch at one end and a grappling iron at the other. The idea was to grapple and winch in an enemy. Pots of flaming oil were carried at the end of long poles that could be extended from the bow and sides of galleys.

When a burning ship grapples another one, there is a 10% chance per turn that the new ship will also suffer a fire attack (see Hull Burn Table).

Boarding

Boarding attackers attack and defend at -2 the round they board, but receive a +1 bonus to attack if boarding from a higher ship. One crew can attempt to board every round for every 10’ of length.

A crew outnumbered by 3:1 will surrender. A captain can order their continued fighting; his crew will only obey 1 in 6.

Rigging (UK1)

Those with Climb Walls will move at their normal rate, for others their movement rate is reduced by 25%. Those with Climb Walls must roll their percentage score or less to succeed, and others must roll their Dexterity or less on 3d6 to succeed. Failure means a fall with a 50% chance of going either into the sea or onto the deck (rolling 1d6 per 10’ fallen). Fighting when aloft will be as normal for those with Climb Walls ability. Others will have -2 on their ‘to hit’ die rolls and their AC will deteriorate by one (though not beyond AC 10). It will not be possible for any character to employ both shield and weapon (or any two-handed weapon) while aloft; nor will it be possible to cast spells other than those with a verbal component only. Crossbows may not be reloaded in a ship’s rigging; solid footing is required to recrank the weapon.

Underwater Combat

Human-types will be somewhat slowed underwater, so aquatic creatures will always get the first chance to hit, unless the human is armed with a significantly longer weapon than the opponent. All surface dwellers suffer -4 To Hit (for ranged and melee combat) underwater. Weapon specialization bonuses will not apply underwater.

Hand-to-Hand: Cutting, slashing, and smashing weapons are not all that useful under water. They suffer a -10 penalty to hit and do only half damage. Thrusting and piercing weapons (spears, tridents, daggers, stabbing swords, lances) function normally.

Missile Weapons: Most missile weapons do not work underwater. Only crossbows made by undersea dwellers (such as mermen) will function, and sell at ten times the normal price. Effective underwater range of these will be one-half normal (dungeon) distances.

Nets: All of the undersea races use nets, particularly aquatic elves, locathah, and mermen; the most adept of all are the sahuagin. They will often set ambushes involving many small nets or one huge net several hundred feet in diameter. These may be concealed in seaweed or left floating near the surface, disguised as something else. The sahuagin are masters of combat network as well, and will often fight with a net in one hand (to entangle and confuse) and a short, jabbing trident in the other.

Nets wielded single-handedly in combat must be weighted. Nets can be thrown one foot for every point of the thrower’s strength. Underwater races can throw nets an average of 15′, sahuagin 20′. Weighted nets can also be dropped upon non-swimmers on the ocean floor to drag them down or incapacitate them. Some battle nets have little hooks or barbs attached at every intersection to ensure that targets will be unable to escape easily. The underwater combat net is a difficult weapon to use, and player characters who attempt it will do so at -4 to hit unless they undergo extensive training and choose the underwater net as a weapon of proficiency (such training must take place underwater).

Two or more characters could stretch a large net between them and foul up attackers or combatants by maneuvering it so that their opponents become entangled therein. This is most effective vs. charging or unsuspecting opponents, who will have less chance of avoiding it.

Spells: Characters cannot cast spells at all underwater unless they have already cast Water Breathing or Create Air or are using a magical item that permits them to breathe. Many material components will be altered by or will not work correctly underwater.

Weather

The base chance of daily precipitation is 25% (e.g., base 40% at sea) for d12 hours, with a 10% chance it will continue. There is an additional base 10% chance per week (or fraction of a week) of encountering unusual weather phenomena (Gaz 9).

For daily weather calculation:

Base Temp, Month: 1(32°), 2(34°), 3 (42°), 4(52°), 5(63°), 6(71°), 7(77°), 8(75°), 9(68°), 10 (57°), 11(46°), 12(33°)
Daily Temperature High/Low: d10 + 6
Sky: 01-20 (Clear), 21-50 (Partly Cloudy), 51-00 (Cloudy)

Terrain Modifiers Table (Greyhawk)

Type	Rain	Temp (°F)	Wind Speed (mph)
Forest	–	-5°	-5 mph
Jungle	+10%	+5°	-10 mph
Swamp/Marsh	+5%	+5°	-5 mph
Plains	–	–	+5 mph
Desert	-30%	+10° (day)/-10° (night)
Mountains	–	-3° per 1000 ft.	+5 mph / 1000 ft.
Sea Coast	+5%	-5° (cold current) / +5° (warm current)	+5 mph
At Sea	+15%	-10° (cold current) / +5° (warm current)	+10 mph
40th Parallel (Standard)	–	±2° for each 70 miles different	–

Precipitation

Weather can generally be considered Rain < Thunderstorm < Gale < Tropical Storm < Hurricane. Other weather effects (in particular Blizzard, Snowstorm, Hail/Sleet, and Monsoon) can be interpreted based on their Wind Force Effects.

Precipitation Type Table

d100	Weather	Min Temp	Max Temp	Duration	Chance to Continue*	Wind Speed	Not Allowed
01-05	Blizzard^d	–	15	3d8 hours	10%	4d8+36	Desert
06-20	Snowstorm^d	–	30	3d6 hours	25%	3d8	–
21-27	Sleet/Hail^d	–	–	d6 hours	15%	3d10	–
28-38	Fog	25	65	2d6 hours	30%	d10	Desert
39-70	Rain	25	–	d12 hours	30%	d20	–
71-84	Rain (Thunderstorm)	30	–	d4 hours	15%	4d10	–
85-89	Gale^b	40	–	d3 days	20%	2d12+30^a	Desert, Plains
90-92	Gale (Monsoon)^c	55	–	d6+6 days	30%	6d10	–
93-97	Storm (Tropical)^b	40	–	d3 days	15%	d4+d6+d10+52^a	Desert (Sandstorm)
98-00	Unusual/Special	–	–	–	1%	–	–

^aAligned to DMG instead of Greyhawk
^bSwapped Greyhawk to align with DMG
^cWind speed determines Gale/Storm effects using the Wind Effects Table
^dIf the current temperature is 36 degrees or higher, rain will fall. If the temperature is between 30 and 35 degrees inclusive, sleet will result half of the time (1-3 on d6, or DM’s discretion) and snow the other half. At a temperature lower than 30 degrees, the precipitation will be a snowfall.

The higher the d100 roll in a specific Precipitation Type category, the more extreme the conditions. If the precipitation continues, 10% of the time the effect increases, 10% of the time the effect decreases. If precipitation will not occur, roll for Wind.

Unusual/Special Weather Table (Gaz 9, WSG, MM2)

d100	Unusual Weather	%	Min Temp	Max Temp	Duration	Chance to Continue*	Wind Speed	Notes
01-10	Becalmed	10	–	–	d100 hours (d12 days)	–	0
11-30	Clouds (Heavy)	20	–	–	d10 days	–	See Wind Force
31-50	Fog (Heavy)	20	25	65	2d6 hours	30%	d10	Desert
51-75	Squall	25	–	–	d100+10 minutes	–	d4+d6+d10+52^a
76-95	Hurricane	20	55	–	d4 days	20%	7d10+66^a	Desert (Sandstorm)
96-00	Waterspout/Tornado	5	–	–	d20 turns	–		20% d10 hours

I de-duplicated Unusual Weather that duplicates both normal weather & Encounters, so probability is represented in one place.

Becalmed: Lasts for d100 hours. In summer equatorial waters, instead lasts for d12 days.

Clouds (Heavy): Lasts d10 days. Shortens distance at which objects can be sighted by 50%. Penalizes Navigation checks by -2 (10%).

Fog (Heavy) (Gaz9): Lasts d4 days. Vision reduced 20-80%, reducing speed by 50%. When within 50 miles of the coast, there is a 2% chance of colliding with another vessel; within 1 mile of the coast, a 10% chance of hitting submerged rocks/reef.

Frozen Precipitation (Gaz9): Lasts d4 hours. Dexterity checks to maintain footing.

Hailstorm: This kind of activity usually occurs during the first ten minutes of a lightning storm (see below), but on rare occasions (roll of 1 on ld6) can be a storm in and of itself lasting from 5-10 (ld6+4) minutes. Hail consists of lumps of ice, typically no larger than 1 inch in diameter but possibly as large as 2 or 3 inches across. When a hailstorm occurs at a temperature of 40 degrees or higher, the hail will melt within minutes of hitting the ground. If the hail activity is followed by a lightning storm, the pellets will have melted by the time the lightning storm ends. WSG

Hurricane (Gaz9): A hurricane brings four days of stormy weather. It cannot be outrun or avoided. It is preceded and followed by d2 days of storms. A hurricane doubles the ship’s normal movement rate. As Storm, but the storm-related damage is doubled. Characters on deck must roll a Dexterity check each day with a -4 penalty if not lashed to a safety line. A second failure indicates being swept overboard.

Snowstorm (Severe): If the normal maximum precipitation for the day in question is moderate, this storm will dump 5-10 inches (d6 +4) of snow; if the normal maximum precipitation is heavy, a severe snowstorm will cause 7-12 inches (1 d6 +6) of accumulation. The snow will come down at the rate of 1 inch per hour until the indicated accumulation is reached. Wind velocity will be very strong at the start of the storm, but will taper off after 1 or 2 hours to a moderate breeze (15-20 mph) at best as the storm center becomes stalled over the area receiving the precipitation. WSG

Squall (brief Storm) (Gaz9): Lasts d100+10 minutes, Force d4. Arrives in d3 turns. No effects on movement or navigation. A successful Ship Sailing check allows judging probable force and best heading. Force 4, 10% chance that ballast or cargo shifts. Shifted ballast reduces movement by 20% and Ship Sailing rolls by -4. Shifted cargo inflicts one point of hull damage per five loose loads¹, and requires one day to resolve. Lightning accompanies 20% of storms, with a 5% chance of hitting the ship (see Lightning spell). (RC)

Storm (Gaz9): Strikes in 2d6 turns after it is sighted on the horizon, with a 5% chance to avoid with minor course change. Storms last one day, with a 20% chance of continuing the second day and a 10% chance of continuing each day thereafter. For each day a storm lasts, the ship is blown d10 × 10 miles off course. Lightning accompanies 20% of storms, with a 5% chance of hitting the ship (see Lightning spell). Determine the storm’s force with d6. Force 5 or 6 storms require characters on deck to roll a Dexterity check each day; a second failure indicates the character is swept overboard. There is a 10% chance that ballast or cargo shifts, doing two hull damage per five loose loads¹, and requires one day to resolve. The captain must make a Ship Sailing roll for each day of the storm to avoid damage, modified by -1 for Force 5, -2 for Force 6, and -2 for every 1,000 miles the ship has sailed without maintenance. An average ship takes one hull damage for each day in a storm.

Sailing ships can attempt to run before a storm, moving twice their normal rate in a random direction. If no coastline is reached, the ship is safe. However, if the ship reaches a coastline, a Ship Sailing check will avoid breaking on the beach, otherwise only a 25% chance the ship will find a safe harbor. Any vessel without a sail, including galleys, may not run before a storm, and has an 80% chance of being swamped by any gale (or worse). If a galley is in sight of the coast when the gale first hits may beach if there is clear coastal terrain, otherwise the galley will find a safe cove on 1-2 on d6.

Thunderstorm: Lightning accompanies 20% of storms, with a 5% chance of hitting the ship (see Lightning spell). (RC)

Waterspout/Tornado (Gaz9): Most last for d20 turns, but 10% last for d10 hours. There is a 5% chance to hit the ship. If a ship is struck by a waterspout it rolls four times for storm damage, and double the severity of the effects. Persons on deck suffer 3d6 damage and are flung d10 × 10 yards away.

Other Weather Dangers Table

DMG:	Gale	Storm	Hurricane
Capsizing	1%	20%	40%	Ship will sink in d10 turns
Broken Mast	5%	25%	45%	Mast snaps, halving ship movement
Broken Beams	10%	35%	50%	Ship leaking, will take 1 hull damage / turn
Torn Sail/Rigging	20%	45%	65%	6 hull damage, halves ship movement
Man Overboard	10%	50%	70%

*The problem with this DMG chart is the probability of a hurricane in the DMG: 1 in 216 (.5%). The probability of hurricanes in other charts is often an order of magnitude higher (3%Expert, 5%Greyhawk, 3% 2nd, 12% Gaz9). Combining this DMG chart with others without taking that info account is extraordinarily lethal, and exacerbated by the above check being every 6 hours, where Greyhawk lists hurricanes as d4 days. That problem is further compounded if checking the Wind Speed Table (which has hurricanes) and the Weather Table (which ALSO has hurricanes). Probabilities adjusted to more closely align with the DMG.

Wind

Wind direction can generally be ignored, as wind doesn’t vary wildly across trade routes. When there’s no percipitation, wind is checked each 24 hours, and (if a change is indicated) changes over d12 hours. Wind can provide a 0-2 mph modifier to movement, depending on direction:

Wind Direction Table

Wind Direction (d8): DMG
1	North	3	East	5	Northwest	7	Southwest
2	South	4	West	6	Northeast	8	Southeast

Wind Force Effects Table

Wind Force (3d6): DMG		Miles per Hour	Missile Combat (P/S/M/L)	Melee Combat	Move	Effects
3	Calm	0-1	–	–	–	–
4-8	Light Wind	2-7	–	–	–	–
9-12	Moderate Wind	8-18	0/-1/-2/-3	–	–	50% extinguish candles.
13-15	Strong Wind	19-31	-1/-2/-3/xx	-1	¾	50% extinguish torch.
16	Gale^b	32-54	-2/-4/xx/xx	-2	⅔	Creatures eagle-sized or less cannot fly. Missile range halved. If > 35 mph Gaseous Form may disperse, and device usage risks dismount at (wind speed–speed of device)% / turn.^a 3d8′ waves.
17	Storm^b	55-72	-4/-6/xx/xx	-4	½	Man-sized creatures cannot fly. d10+20′ waves). Hull damage (see Storm).
18	Hurricane^b	73-136	xx/xx/xx/xx	-8	¼	Flight not possible (unless Plane of Air). No Dex bonus. 20% chance weapon torn from wielder’s hand. Hull damage (see Hurricane).

^aReduce by 5% for every 100 lbs. of body weight and encumbrance. Those weighing < 100 lbs have their chance increased by 1% for every 5 lbs below that limit. ^bAny wind of strong gale force or better will have a chance to damage the ship or blow men overboard. Checks should be made every 6 hours or until winds subside:

Effects of Climate Extremes

Inclement weather can affect movement rate, range of vision, tracking, and the chance of getting lost.

Bulky clothing can affect character Dexterity, Armor Class, and “to Hit” rolls, -1 for every 10 degrees below °F.

Heat-producing magic will cause snow to melt and refreeze into glare ice. Ice floes will crack and separate. In mountainous terrain, intense heat can cause an avalanche or rock slide.

Extreme cold can cause oil to not flow. Liquids may freeze and crack their containers.

Encounters

Random encounters occurs 1 in 20. In fresh water, check morning, evening, and midnight. In salt water, check dawn and noon in coastal and shallow waters; check only once during daylight (usually noon) in deep water (DMG).

Unintelligent monsters will be 75% likely to be driven off by flaming oil, 90% if actually burned. Large amounts of food will be 50% likely to end encounters.

Monsters

At sea. Some monsters, such as a Sea Snake or a Dragon Turtle, will also attempt to capsize a ship if they should choose to attack it. Monsters surprise ships as normal. Ships never surprise unless a special condition exists (such as fog).

Typical Sea Monster Movement

Dolphin 30″, Dragon Turtle: 3″/9’, Eye of the Deep 6″, Locathah 12″, Merman 18″, Octopus 12″, Sahuagin 12″/24″, Sea Hag 15″, Sea Lion 18″, Sea Horse 21″, Shark 24″, Megalodon 18″, Squid 18″, Whale 18″-24″

Salt Water Surface Encounters—Shallow Waters, Coastal Waters, Small Inland Seas

Dice Score	Creature Encountered	Appearing	AC	Move	HD	THAC0	Damage	Size	In Lair	Other
01-02	Crocodile, giant**	d2-2d12	4	6″/12″	7	13	3d6/2d10	L	Nil	Surprise
03-10	Dinosaur- see Dinosaur Subtable	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
11-17	Dolphin	2d10	5	30″	2+2	16	2d4	M	Nil
18	Dragon turtle	1	0	3″/9″	12-14	9-8	2d6/2d6/4d8	L	5%	Breath Weapon. Capsize.
19-20	Elf, Aquatic	d20×10	5	12″	1+1	18	d10/w	M	10%	Leaders. Dolphins
21	lxitxachitl	10d10	6	12″	1+1	18	3d4	M	60%	Cleric spells
22-23	Koalinth (hobgoblin)	d20×10	5	9″	1+1	18	d8	M	25%	Leaders
24	Kopoacinth (gargoyle)	2d8	5	9″/15″	4+4	15	d3/d3/d6/d4	M	20%	+1 or better
25	Lacedon (ghoul)	2d12	6	9″	2	16	d3/d3/d3	M		Paralyze, Undead
26	Locathah	d20×10	6	12″	2	16	d8/w		10%	Leaders, Giant Eels
27-35	Men, buccaneer (warship)	5d6×10	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	Leader
36-63	Men, merchant*	–	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	–
64-67	Men, pirate	–	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	–
68-70	Men, pirate (tribesman with small craft)	–	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	–
71-73	Merman	d20×10	7	1″//18″	1+1	18	d8/w	M	25%
74	Nymph	d4	9	12″	3	16	0	M	100%	50% MR, Druid spells
75	Octopus, giant	d3	7	3″/12″	8	12	d4×8	L	70%	25% pin arm
76-80	Sahuagin	d4×20	5	12″/24″	2+2	16	d2/d2/d4	M	25%	Leaders, Sharks
81-83	Shark, giant	d3	5	18″	10-15	9-7	4d4-6d6	L	Nil	Swallow
84-86	Snake, sea	d8	5	12″	8-10	12-10	d6/3d6	L	Nil	Poison, Constriction
87-89	Triton	d6×10	5	15″	3	16	d8/w	M	25%	Leaders. Mounted
90	Turtle, giant, sea	d3	2/5	1″/15″	15	8	4d3	L	Nil	Non-aggressive. Capsize
91-96	Whale, carnivorous, small	d8	4	24″	12	9	5d4-15d4	L	Nil	Swallow
97-00	Whale, small	d8	4	24″	12	9	d8-5d8	L	Nil	Swallow

Salt Water Surface Encounters—Deep Water (DMG)

Dice Score	Creature Encountered	Appearing	AC	Move	HD	THAC0	Damage	Size	In Lair	Other
01-05	Dinosaur- see Dinosaur Subtable	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
06-13	Dolphin	2d10	5	30″	2+2	16	2d4	M	Nil
14	Dragon turtle	1	0	3″/9″	12-14	9-8	2d6/2d6/4d8	L	5%	Breath Weapon. Capsize.
15-16	Man, buccaneer (warship)	5d6×10	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	Leader
17-25	Man, merchant*	–	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	–
26-27	Man, pirate	–	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	–
28-35	Merman	d20×10	7	1″//18″	1+1	18	d8/w	M	25%
36-40	Octopus, giant	d3	7	3″/12″	8	12	d4×8	L	70%	25% pin arm
41-45	Sahuagin	d4×20	5	12″/24″	2+2	16	d2/d2/d4	M	25%	Leaders, Sharks
46-50	Shark, giant	d3	5	18″	10-15	9-7	4d4-6d6	L	Nil	Swallow
51-53	Snake, sea	d8	5	12″	8-10	12-10	d6/3d6	L	Nil	Poison, Constriction
54-55	Squid, giant	1	7/3	3″/18″	12	9	d6×12/5d4	L	40%	Pin
56-65	Triton	d6×10	5	15″	3	16	d8/w	M	25%	Leaders. Mounted.
66-68	Turtle, giant, sea	d3	2/5	1″/15″	15	8	4d3	L	Nil	Non-aggressive. Capsize.
69-72	Whale, carnivorous, large	d8	4	18″	36	7	15d4	L	Nil	Swallow
73-78	Whale, carnivorous medium	d8	4	12″	24	7	10d4	L	Nil	Swallow
79-85	Whale, carnivorous, small	d8	4	24″	12	9	5d4	L	Nil	Swallow
86-90	Whale, large	d8	4	18″	36	7	5d8	L	Nil
91-95	Whale, medium	d8	4	21″	24	7	3d8	L	Nil
96-00	Whale, small	d8	4	24″	12	9	d8	L	Nil

*80% of encountered trading vessels will be carrying d100% cargo.

Salt Water Surface Encounters—Deep Water (Enhanced)

Check for Frequency, and roll on appropriate section of table:
1-65 (Common), 66-85 (Uncommon), 86-97 (Rare), 97-00 (Rare)

Roll		Creature Encountered	#	AC	Move	HD	THAC0	Damage	Size	In Lair	Other
1	C	Man, merchant	–	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	80% will be carrying d100% cargo.
2	C	Seaweed, Sargasso	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	Check for additional encounter
3	C	Shark	3d4	6	24″	3-8	16-12	d4+1\|2d4\|3d4	M/L	Nil	–
4	C	Whale	d8	4	18/21/24	12/24/36	7	d8/3d8/5d8	L	Nil	–
5	C	Whale, carnivorous	d8	4	12/18/24	12/24/36	7	5d4/10d4/15d4	L	Nil	Swallow
1	U	Dinosaur (see Dinosaur Subtable)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
2	U	Dolphin	2d10	5	30″	2+2	16	2d4	M	Nil	–
3	U	Dolphin	2d10	5	30″	2+2	16	2d4	M	Nil	–
4	U	Eel, Giant	d4	6	9″	5	15	3d6	M	Nil	–
5	U	Island (see Island Subtable)	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–
6	U	Man, buccaneer (pirate/privateer)	5d6×10	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	Leaders. Warship. 25% have MU, 15% Cleric. 20% will be carrying d100% cargo.
7	U	Man, navy	5d6×10	–	12″	1	–	W	M	0	10% 2d4 ships
8	U	Man, smuggler	5d6×10	–	12″	1	–	W	M	20%	80% will be carrying d100% cargo.
9	U	Merman	d20×10	7	1″//18″	1+1	18	d8/w	M	25%	Temperate/tropical
10	U	Omen	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	Random check for additional encounter
11	U	Portuguese Man-o-war, Giant	d10	9	1″	d4	19-16	d10	S-L	Nil	Warm seas
12	U	Sahuagin	d4×20	5	12″/24″	2+2	16	d2/d2/d4	M	25%	Leaders, Sharks, Temperate/warm
13	U	Scrag	d8	2	3″//12″	6+12	12	d4/d4/d8+8	L	15%	10% AC1
14	U	Sea Lion	3d4	5/3	18+	6	13	d6/d6/2d6	L	20%	Coastal
15	U	Snake, sea	d8	5	12″	8-10	12-10	d6/3d6	L	Nil	Poison, Constriction
16	U	Turtle, giant, sea	d3	2/5	1″/15″	15	8	4d3	L	Nil	Non-aggressive. Capsize.
1	R	Albatross	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	Treat as Omen. Roll again disregarding Common/Uncommon results
2	R	Ghost Ship	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	See Ghost Ship
3	R	Giant ( Storm)	d4×20	1	15″	15+2-7	7	7d6	L	55%	–
4	R	Giant (Cloud)	d6	2	15″	12+2-7	9-7	6d6	L	40%	Hurl 2d12
5	R	Green Slime	d6	9	0″	2	16	–	S	Nil	Indistinguishable from a seaweed at ≥ 40′
6	R	Hollyphant	d3	-4	9″/42″	8+8	10	d3/d3/d6	S(2′)	Nil	–
7	R	Hydra, Sea	1	5	9″	5-12	15-9	d6/d8/d10	L	20%	d8+4 heads
8	R	Ice	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	Not warm. See Ice
9	R	Narwhale									–
10	R	Octopus, giant	d3	7	3″/12″	8	12	d4×8	L	70%	25% pin arm
11	R	Roc	d2	4	3″/30″	18	7	3d6/3d6 or 4d6	L	10%	–
12	R	Rocky shoals	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	See Rocky Shoals/Collision
13	R	Salt Water Termite (X7)	d6+1	5	4	6″//18″	15	d6	1′-5′		Ink causes paralysis, 1 Hull point / round for d6 rounds
14	R	Shark, giant	d3	5	18″	10-15	9-7	4d4-6d6	L	Nil	Swallow
15	R	Spiders, Giant (Marine)	d8	4	12″	4+4	15	2d4	L	70%	–
16	R	Squid, giant	1	7/3	3″/18″	12	9	d6×12/5d4	L	40%	Pin
17	R	Triton	d6×10	5	15″	3	16	d8/w	M	25%	Leaders. Mounted.
18	R	Whirlpool	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	See Whirlpool
19	R	Will-o-wisp	1	-8	18	9	12	2d8	S	5%	10% encounter d3
1	V	Dragon turtle	1	0	3″/9″	12-14	9-8	2d6/2d6/4d8	L	5%	Breath Weapon. Capsize
2	V	Dragon, Cloud	1	0 or -3	6″/39″	12-14	9-8	d10/d10/3d12/3d4	L	25%	5% Two.
3	V	Elemental, Air	1	2	36″	8/12/16	12/9/7	2d10	L	–	–
4	V	Elemental, Water	1	2	6″//18″	8/12/16	12/9/7	5d6	L	–	Capsize
5	V	Giant, Frost	d8	4	12	10+1-4	10-8	4d6	L	30%	See AC10 – Iceberg
6	V	Kal-Muru (Ship-bane) (X8)	10-60	4	12″(4″)	2*	16	d3/d3/d6	L	–	Create Fog, Confusion
7	V	Kraken	1	5/0	//3″ (21″)	20	7	2d6x2/2d4x6, 5d4	L	75%	Spell Use, Drag Under
8	V	Maelstrom	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	–	See “Depths of Despair”
9	V	Nereid	d4×20	10	12″	4	15	–	M	100%	95% undetectable. Blinding. Kiss.
10	V	Seawolf, Greater	4d4	5	9″//27″	9+2	12	3d4 \| By Weapon	L	Nil	Cold waters
11	V	Seawolf, Lesser	3d6	6(7)	30″//12″	2+2	16	2d4\|d2/d2/d4	M	Nil	–
12	V	Sirine	1	2	12″//24″	4-7	15-13	By weapon	M	30%	In lair encounter 2-8
13	V	Water Weird	d3	4	12″	3+3	15	0	L	50%	Drowning
14	V	Wereshark	1	0	12″//21″	10+3	10	5d4	L	20%	–

Sources: DMG, MM2, Gaz9,OSaS, OA1, X7, GA1.

Subtable – Dinosaurs

d100	Creature Encountered
01-15	Archelon ischyras
16-35	Dinicthys”
36-55	EIasmosaurus**
56-75	Mosasaurus**
76-00	Plesiosaurus**

“Encountered only in deep water, otherwise roll again.
**If encounter occurs in fresh water, it must be a warm climate or roll again.

Subtable – Islands

Islands have surrounding reefs 10% of the time that do 2-1 2 points hull damage to ships. There is a 20% chance they will put a hole in the ship (treat as ramming). 75% of all islands are mountainous. 85% of undiscovered islands will be deserted, otherwise roll below:

Roll		Mysterious Island
1	VR	Floating Rock (Dungeon Magazine)
2	VR	Needle (I11)
3	VR	Castanamir (C3)
4	VR	Wreck of Shining Star (Dungeon Magazine)
5	VR	Triffids
6	VR	Drums on Fire Mountain (X8)
7	VR	Tamoachan (C1)
8	VR	Crystal Caves (UK1)
9	VR	Lizardmen Floating Island (Gaz 4)
10	VR	War Rafts (X7)
11	VR	Barrier Peaks
12	VR	Sunken Atoll (OA1)
13	VR	Secret Pirate Base (see X1, A3, or Three Flowers)
14-15	VR	Roll again on this table (two island populations)

Subtable – Other Encounters (MM2)

Roll	Other Encounters
1	Floating Seaweed
2	Ghost Ships
3	Ice (see Iceberg)
4	Land Encounter (see Islands)
5	Omen
6	Reef/Shoals
7	Seaweed Bed
8	Shipboard Fire
9	Sunken Ship
10	Whirlpool / Maelstrom (see Whirlpool)

Floating Seaweed (MM2): Floating seaweed is a hazard and sometimes serves as a lair for creatures like sea hags. Any ship entering an area of floating seaweed is slowed by 50% and there is a 40% chance of its having another encounter while among the mass of sea plants.

Ghost Ships (MM2): Many ships have been lost at sea and on hidden rivers. These ships still sail, manned by undead sailors and commanded by the more powerful of their breed. A ghost ship can be any type of ship from galley to warship. On a percentile roll, the crew will be: 01 -40 = 10-40 skeletons; 41 -80 = 10-40 zombies; 81 -00 = 10-20 juju zombies. The commanding officers will be: 01-30 = 1-4 wights; 31-40 = 1-3 wraiths; 61 -80 = 1-2 spectres; 81 -95 = 1-2 ghosts; 95-00 = 1 lich. A ghost ship can be sighted in daylight and at night but will usually only attack at night, when the ship’s masters are at full power.

Iceberg (MM2): Ships can encounter ice floes in freshwater and icebergs in salt, the latter ranging from single mountains of ice to fields of 10-20 small ice mountains that continually break against each other and anything that gets in their way (10-16 feet in freshwater, 10-60 feet in salt). Ice does 1-6 points of hull damage for every round in contact with the ship. In addition, icebergs have a 10% chance of holing in the ship (treat as rammed; see “Ramming”). MM2

Land Encounters (MM2): Roll on the appropriate table for the terrain nearest the water. If not applicable, treat as no encounter.

Islands: Freshwater game can be found on islands, as can unfriendly creatures and tribesmen. Islands have surrounding reefs 10% of the time that do 2-12 points of hull damage. There is a 20% chance they will put a hole in the ship (treat as ramming).

Maelstrom (see Whirlpool): 10% of all whirlpools are Maelstroms. Any ship within three miles becomes caught in the maelstrom’s grip unless its movement rate is 18″ or higher. These ships will enter the deadly vortex in d4 turns. Ships are dragged into the whirlpool at 1″ per round, cumulative (1″ the 1st round, 2″ the 2nd, 3″ the 3rd, etc.). A ship must exceed the speed of the flow to escape.

Omen: Half of all omens are good, and half are bad, adding ±5% to the crew’s morale. Examples of bad omens include: A bloody sea, a wounded or dead albatross, the sighting of a “phantom” ship, and cloud formations of sea monsters.

Reef/Shoals: Ships encountering a reef might run aground. See Collision.

Seaweed Beds (MM2): The underwater equivalent of surface seaweed, these beds are rooted to the sea floor and are from 30-300′ high. Vision is reduced to 10 feet in beds of seaweed, and there is a 30% chance of another encounter in the area.

Ship-Board Fire: Fire on a ship can be devastating. Roll on the Burn Damage table for how much damage the ship takes before (and if) the fire is extinguished.

Sunken Ships (MM2): These victims of storms, ice, or hostile ships can be any type of ship. They often still bear their original merchandise and treasure and just as often have inhabitants, either new creatures moving in or remains of the original crew. On a percentile die the inhabitants are as follows: 01 -20 =carries merchant treasure (see “Man, Merchants”); 11-20 = no treasure; 21-60 = 2-24 lacedons from the original crew; 61-00 = other monsters (roll on main chart).

Whirlpool/Maelstrom (MM2, Gaz9): 90% are natural phenomena lasting d6 hours (see Maelstrom). The whirlpool is a trap for the unwary. 75% can drag down only small craft (50′ or less), while 25% can drag any size ship to the bottom. Ships are dragged into the whirlpool at 1″ per round, cumulative (1″ the 1st round, 2″ the 2nd, 3″ the 3rd, etc.). A ship must exceed the speed of the flow to escape. Otherwise, it will be dragged to the bottom in 6 rounds (see “Afanc”). Captains or helmsmen can attempt a Seamanship check at a -4 penalty once each turn to escape the maelstrom’s deadly pull. Ships that do not escape break apart in d6 rounds. Can be avoided with a successful Piloting roll. If not avoided successive rolls are at a cumulative -2 each hour. A ship still caught at the end of the duration takes 2d10 points of hull damage.

Income and Expenses

Trade Summary

Arrive in port
Harbor master
1. Determine port entrance (d10 + 10 gp) fees and moorage fees (availability 80%, 1 gp/hull point/day or 5 gp at anchor)
2. Pilot/towage, port of origin and next destination
Determine Customs timing, appraisal, and taxes (if offloading cargo)
Determine merchant interest in goods
1. Determine how many merchants are available each week
2. Determine sales price of goods
3. Determine time to offload cargo (depends on moorage)
Determine merchants with goods available
1. Determine how many merchants are available each week
2. Determine quantity of goods
3. Determine time to load cargo (depends on moorage)
Determine if merchant seeks transport for hire to specific destination (5% + 25% if solicited)
If known destination, determine passengers seeking passage (2d4 – d4 ± 2 port size)
Determine if passengers seek transportation for hire to specific destination (5%)
Depart

The Cost of Doing Business

Sea travel is not without costs. Most ports charge a port entrance fee of 11-20 gp (depending on port size). 80% of the time a ship can find a moorage berth, at a cost of 1 gp / day / hull point. Ships that cannot find (or do not desire) a berth may anchor in the harbor for a flat 5 gp per day.

Representatives of the harbor master visit newly-arrived vessels to assess docking and other service fees. The representatives have the authority to quarantine or turn away undesirable ships. They can also require or provide pilots and/or towage at a cost of 1 gp per hull point, required for large ships through congested harbors. When inspecting an arriving vessel, the harbor master also asks its port of origin and the next destination. This information is posted at the port authority office.

Port entrance fee	10-20 gp
Moorage Berth	1 gp / hull point/day
At Anchor	5 gp / day
Piloting or Towage	1 gp / hull point

Cargo

Measuring a ship’s cargo capacity as “tonnage” derives from ships carrying barrels holding 250 gallons of wine (a tun). Cargo is determined by “loads”, defining one load as a half-ton of goods (10,000 cn). A 10-ton ship can therefore carry 20 loads of goods. Considering the load capacity for carts and wagons listed in WSG, one wagon can carry one load, a cart can carry one-half load, and a large wagon with many horses can carry 1.5 loads. The encumbrance of one crate equals 500 cns.

Where required, the value of one load can be calculated by determining one wagon’s worth of a particular good. Note that packing everything in crates adds more encumbrance than a wagonload of cabbages! A horse or cow consumes fodder weighing 200 cn / day; this feed takes up additional cargo space.

Port agents can be used as middlemen to ease process of the buying and selling of cargo. They have Appraisal and Bargaining skills of 10 + d8 + d4–1 proficiency bonus. They make 2d10 + 5% of the sale profits or purchase price, and remove the requirement for an available merchant at the cost of one level of demand.

Transport for Hire

In a merchant sailors’ guild, roughly 50% of the cargo is transported for hire. A variable amount is charged, based on volume, weight, and value of goods. 40% of the shipping fees go to the ship’s crew as shares; the remainder goes to the guild.

There is a 5% chance per port that a merchant will offer to hire a vessel for d12 cargo loads of goods to another destination (Type determined per Available Goods below). This chance increases by 25% if the crew actively solicits such work. A shipper typically charges 40 gp per ton (two loads) of cargo space per 500 miles, with a minimum fee of 100 gp, with no requirement to fill the hold. Normally half the payment is made in advance, with the remainder paid by the shipper’s agent upon arrival. Bonuses for early delivery and hazardous travel conditions are negotiable.

Consignment Trade

About 20% of guild shipping is carrying goods on consignment. The captain or guild representative sells the cargo for the best possible price, with 10-40% of the sale to the ship’s crew. There is some risk, but the merchant guild takes only 30% of the profit, so a good trade can put a large sum in the hands of captain and crew.

Cargo on Speculation

About 30% of guild shipping is speculative cargo bought and sold by the captains themselves, with 80% of the profit going to the ship’s crew as shares and 20% to the merchant’s guild. A ship owner engages in speculation typically takes 50% of the profits, with the remainder split in shares amongst the captain and crew.

A number of components determine profit for any shipping venture: value, distance, demand, perishable, and associated skills. While there could be a complicated tracking of specific cargos available and demanded at each port (wine, cotton, fish, etc.), a simpler system defines generic cargo with associated random elements to determine profits. As such, most transaction modifications are calculated at time of sale, not purchase. For those desiring a more granular system, the associated components can be tracked in detail instead of determined randomly.

Proficiencies modify various results. Failed Proficiency rolls will inversely affect the result if the failure roll is an odd number. If both parties have the proficiency, the change is the difference between the two parties.

Buying on Speculation

Merchants in each port will buy and sell cargo, but few merchants wait in a port. There will be d6 (± 2 depending on port size) merchants (potentially modified by the Charisma Reaction Adjustment) interested in transacting with the PCs. One half of the potential merchants are available the first full week in port, one quarter the second full week, and any remainder at one per full week.

To determine the Base Type of Available Goods from an individual merchant roll 3d6:

Base Type, Per Load: (≤ 5: 50 gp, Primitive), (6-8: 150 gp, Consumer), (9-12: 250 gp, Comfort), (13-16: 400 gp, Fine), (16+: 2,000 gp¹, Precious)
Modified by port size (± 2)

A successful Appraisal roll adds 1 to the roll (representing purchasing higher-quality goods).

¹The suggested value for monsters is 100 gp / HD, × 10 for each special or exceptional ability. Remember fodder space!

Each merchant can deliver only a limited quantity of goods on speculation. To calculate the number of loads available from any one merchant, roll 3d8:

Modify based on the port size (± 2)
Subtract the previous unmodified Base Type roll, minimum of 1.

A Bargaining check will modify the amount paid for the Base Type by 5% × the amount of success (max 25%).

Selling on Speculation

Merchant availability at the destination is calculated similarly. Interest in goods for a Base Type is calculated as 3d6, modified by Port Size (± 2) and Demand Modifier:

The Demand Modifier (3d6) (modified +4 with successful Trade proficiency):

3(-5), 4-5 (-4), 6 (-3), 7 (-2), 8-9 (-1), 10-11 (0), 12-13 (+1), 14 (+2), 15(+3), 16-17(+4), 18(+5)

The Sale Price of a Base Type is determined by using the Sale Adjustment Table. Roll 3d6, modified by:

No applicable proficiencies (Bargaining, Appraisal, Trade): -2
Successful Bargaining (also see Port Agent): +1
Successful Appraisal (also see Port Agent): +1
Precious goods: 10% of all precious goods will be Extraordinary (+4)
The earlier Demand Modifier (-5 to +5)
Distance (d6): Short (1-2, <80 miles, -1), Medium (3-5, ≤250 miles, 0), Long (6, >500 miles, +2), Extraordinary (>500 miles, +4)
- Cargo can be perishable. If the distance traveled since the last transaction is greater than the distance rolled, 25% of the time 25% of the cargo will have perished for each additional unit of travel (medium, long, etc.) since last making port.

Sale Adjustment Table

3d6	Percentage of Base Price
3	30 percent
4	40 percent
5	50 percent
…	…
16	160 percent
17	180 percent
18	200 percent
19	300 percent
20*	400 percent

* If the result is >20, roll an unmodified 3d6 again on the Sale Adjustment Table and add the results.

A Bargaining check will modify the Base Sale Price by 5% times the amount of success (max 25%).

Loading and Unloading

Unloading cargo will typically incur Customs costs. Cargo cannot be unloaded until inspected by Customs. Customs inspectors normally board within d6 hours. In a busy harbor or a place with lazy customs officials this could be as long as d20 hours. Customs officials generally have an Appraisal skill of 10 + d8. If a failure is on an odd number, the evaluation is low. The appraisal is off by 5% times the amount of failure. After evaluating a cargo the customs inspector assess a tax which can range from 1% to 100% of the goods’ determined value, with an average customs fee of 2d10 percent. See the Smuggling proficiency for avoiding Customs.

At a dock, five crew can unload one load of cargo (10,000 cns) per hour during daylight with reasonable weather conditions (provided the cargo is not particularly awkward). Adverse conditions can double or triple that time. Loading the ship takes 50% longer as the cargo must be carefully stowed and secured. If dock workers are available they can be hired for 2 sp per hour.³

Passengers

There are typically 2d4–d4 passengers seeking passage at any port, ± 2 depending on port size at both port of origin and destination. Passengers are usually charged 20 gp per 500 miles traveled.

There is also a 5% chance per port visited that one or more passengers travelling together want to hire a ship to go to a destination of their choice. If this occurs, they desire to sail to the most remote port within 2d20 × 100 miles. If passengers hire a ship to go to the destination of their choice, first-class passengers pay as if they shipped enough to fill the cargo hold at 40 gp per ton (two loads) of cargo space for each 500 miles, with a minimum fee of 100 gp. A round-trip fee can be charged if there is no possibility of cargo at the destination. A ship can accommodate passengers equal to 20% of the standard crew complement. As a general rule, a ship can substitute one passenger for every load reduction.

On the High Seas

Governments issue letters of marque to harass an enemy’s shipping in war time and in peacetime to suppress piracy and smuggling. Once a privateer has captured a prize, it must bring or send the captured ship to a port in the country issuing the letter. There, a Prize Court determines if the prize was covered by the letter; if it was, the ship and its cargo are then auctioned. The government has the right to buy the ship for itself before auction. The privateer keeps 75% of the price of the prize, and the remainder goes to the government.

Proficiencies

Appraisal: The ability to figure out what something is worth, used to evaluate the worth of a cargo. The evaluation is low on an odd-numbered failure, and off by 5% times the amount of failure. Merchants typically sell for 10-40% more than appraised value, and buy at 10-40% below appraised value. Wisdom, -2 penalty.

Artillerist: Permits the operation of artillery (catapult, ballista) OR supervision of artillery construction. Required for use of catapult. To both operate and construct artillery, this proficiency must be selected twice. Any supervised person with appropriate material can construct ½ HP of equipment /day (maximum workers = ½ the HP of the finished product). An artillerist is a hireling (150 gp / month) trained in the operation of siege artillery. Intelligence, -2 penalty.

Astrology: Characters with the astrology proficiency gain a +1 bonus to all navigation proficiency checks, provided the stars can be seen.

Bargaining: The ability to get the best possible price for goods, services, or information. If Bargaining between two characters with the Bargaining proficiency, determine the difference between the two skills and multiply the difference by 5%. The superior bargainer improves the price or decreases the cost by the indicated price adjustment. Charisma, -2 penalty.

Boating: Permits normal usage of small craft. The boating proficiency is needed to guide a small boat (small boat, canoe or kayak) down a rapid stream and to reduce the dangers of capsizing a canoe or kayak. The chance of capsizing is reduced by 20% for each proficient character after the first. In a small craft containing no proficient characters, or one in which at least one non-proficient character is doing some of the work of rowing or sailing, the following penalties apply: the movement rates of small craft are reduced to 2/3 of normal; the chance of capsizing is increased by 25% in any situation where the chance is normally greater than 0%, to a maximum of 100%. Wisdom, +1 bonus.

Boatwright: Allows constructing all sorts of watercraft up to a maximum size of 40 feet long. The time period required to build a boat depends on its size. As a general guide, a boat requires one week of construction time per foot of length. Two characters with Boatwright proficiency cut this time in half; three reduce it to one third, etc. A maximum of one Boatwright per five-foot length of the boat can work on the vessel simultaneously.

The basic boat includes the hull, masts, deck, and benches as required. Additional features such as a cabin or sealed hold add about a week apiece to the construction time. Characters without Boatwright proficiency can aid the Boatwright in construction, but it takes two such characters to equal the time savings that one additional skilled Boatwright would provide. 2 slots, Intelligence, -2 penalty.

Customs Inspection: Provides the ability to detect Smuggling. Those who also have Smuggling gain an additional +1 bonus to Customs Inspection checks. Wisdom, -2 penalty.

Navigation (DRMG 107): The art of navigating by the stars, studying currents, and watching for telltale signs of land, reefs, and hidden danger. This is not particularly useful on land. At sea, a successful proficiency check reduces a chance of getting lost by 20%. A character with the Ship Sailing proficiency can attempt to Navigate with a -10 penalty. A character with only Boat Sailing skill is successful only on a die roll of 2 or less, and a character with none of these skills navigates correctly by mere luck on a roll of 1. Intelligence, -3 penalty [aligning average Intelligence with base of 40% from DRMG107].

Piloting (DRMG 107): Skill at directing a ship through a hazardous area (e.g., an icefield, lake with jutting rocks at irregular intervals, a reef, or a strong current which pulls ships into danger), and is specific to ship type:

Small boats: river boat, sailing boat, canoe, ship’s lifeboat, raft
Galleys: small galley, large galley, war galley, longship
Water vessels: Large sailing ship, small sailing ship, troop transport

A character with the Piloting skill also decreases the chance of capsizing by 10% and increases shearing attempts by +2. Wisdom, +1 bonus.

Sea Lore (Gaz 9, DRMG 107): This skill is similar to a bard’s legend lore, but deals with knowledge of nautical legends, such as recognizing the names of sunken ships and remembering their history, recognizing uncharted islands from rumors and reports of landmarks, identifying sea monsters and ghost ships, etc. Intelligence, -2 penalty.

Seamanship: The character is familiar with boats and ships, and qualified to work as a crewman (although he cannot actually sail or navigate). Crews of trained seamen are necessary to manage any ship, and they improve the movement rates of inland boats by 50%. Those with Seamanship will not be required to roll for success when aloft in the rigging under normal conditions, and can fight as normal. Select fresh or salt water. Dexterity, +1 bonus.

Ship Sailing: Character knows how to sail a ship. This skill does not give the ability to navigate. Intelligence, +1 bonus.

Ship Carpentry: Character can make common shipyard repairs, including masts, and can build boxes, barrels, and other containers. Intelligence, 0.

Shipwright (DRMG 107): See Boatwright. Character knows the arts of ship construction and can determine its quality with minimal inspection. The character is knowledgeable regarding techniques for ship construction and repair. He can design and build ships of all types, with a proficiency check only being required for an unusual feature. The character can perform routine maintenance on sailing vessels or galleys, including repairing sails and caulking the hull, without a proficiency check. A shipwright need not have other workmen to finish small vessels, but vessels of any size require large crews of shipwrights and other laborers to build or repair. 2 slots, Intelligence, -2 penalty.

Signaling: Those proficient know a common flag code and a common conch-horn code, and may pick up new codes.

Smuggling: A character with the Smuggling proficiency can avoid paying customs fees. Failure means a fine at 10× normal customs fees. Those who also have Customs Inspection gain an additional +1 bonus to Smuggling checks. Wisdom, -4 penalty.

Trade: A character with the Trade proficiency is more likely to have goods demanded at the destination, and will modify the Demand ±2 with a Trade proficiency check. Wisdom, -1 penalty.

Underwater Combat: For surface dwellers. Suffer only -2 To Hit, and +2 to Initiative when underwater (weapon specialization will still not apply). Weapon Proficiency.

Vessel Identification (Gaz 9): Upon seeing a vessel, the character can judge things about it by her lines, rigging, and flags (if any). Use of this skill gives a good idea of the ship’s country of origin, its type, armament, speed, and crew compliment. Intelligence, 0.

End Notes (see also Bibliography)

¹ Number scaled from Expert and Gaz 9 to AD&D based on a 5:1 difference in hull points.
² Based off of 1e AD&D numbers.
³ Doubled due to the 20:1 ratio for silver in AD&D.

Appendix A: Siege Attack Values (Against Ships)

Source of Damage	Hull Damage
Bigby’s Clenched Fist	1/round
Catapult, Light	4
Catapult, Heavy	6
Disintegrate	2
Fireball & Delayed Blast Fireball	½ per HD (if <5 HD) + Fire (if >= 5 HD)
Flame Strike	4 + Fire (see Hull Burn Table)
Gust of Wind (hostile)	(10% chance / level of putting sailing vessel in irons)^*
Horn of Blasting	18
Incendiary Cloud	½ per 6 hp damage done, Fire
Lightning Bolt	½ per HD (if < 8 HD) + Fire (if >= 8HD)
Meteor Swarm (2’ sphere)	3 each
Meteor Swarm (1’ sphere)	1½ each
Wall of Fire	2 + Fire (see Hull Burn Table)
Wall of Force	As per collision
Warp Wood	1 (Level 5-9), 2 (Level 10+)
Sea Monsters (unspecified)	1 hull damage for each full 10 hp inflicted unless otherwise indicated

^*A vessel in irons (as noted above) is temporarily out of control. How long the vessel stays in irons depends on how quickly the cause is remedied. For the loss of a mast or a poorly executed maneuver, the vessel is in irons for 5-30 rounds. Once in irons, a vessel has no control over its course, cannot fire its artillery, and does a fair job of imitating a sitting duck.

Appendix B: Potential Modifiers (Optional)

The following modifiers can apply to dice rolls when evaluating ship-to-ship movement and combat:

	-2	-1	0	+1	+2	Special
Crew Quality	Green	Average	Trained	Crack	Old Salts	[Wounded]
Crew Quantity	None	Skeleton/Crowded	Normal	Enhanced	Peak
Crew Morale	Afraid	Nervous	Normal	Confident	Fervent
Wind	Calm	Light Breeze	Moderate	Strong	Gale	[Favorable]
Range	Distant	Long	Medium	Short	Contact
Ship Size	T (< 8’)	S (8’-19’)	M (20’-59)	L (60’-100’)	VL (100’+)
Ship Status	Crippled	Leaking	Normal	Good	Advanced	[Fire], [Sinking]
Movement	Slow	Slower	Same	Faster	Fast	[Sailed]
Visibility	Foggy	Hurricane	Rain/Storm	Cloudy/Twilight	Clear	[Darkness]
Maneuverability	E	D	C	B	A	[Rowed]

Crew Experience

Training: 6 months landlubber, then 1 year as green/scurvy rats. 50% will then advance to Average (Mates) in 6 months. Trained requires many long voyages at sea, typically on different craft, and experienced in combat. Crack crews are very specialized, for a specific crew, ship, and captain.

Appendix C: Random Notes on Seaworthiness (unused)

Of Ships & Sea, Fallen Stars

Damage: Light, Moderate, Heavy affects seaworthiness?

A ship can be sunk by failing a seaworthiness check (taking on water), or be destroyed through the loss of a hull points.

Seaworthiness rates the vessel’s relative stability in dangerous situations, notably storms, hidden shoals, extended voyages, huge monster attacks, and combat. Whenever a ship is rammed, struck by catapult stones, pierced by a ballista shaft, or partially disintegrated, there is a chance the damage caused will be serious enough to cripple or sink the vessel. In combat, seaworthiness is checked on a Hull Smashed artillery Critical Hit, a Deadly Strike ram Critical Hit, a Ram Shatters on a critical failure, if a ship loses half its hull points, or if the ship is partially disintegrated.

Ships also makes Seaworthiness checks if sailing in a gale or storm, on entering coastal waters with hidden shoals, or when sailing in a fog.

Any time there is a chance of sinking, roll percentile dice. If the roll is equal to or less than the seaworthiness rating of the ship, the ship remains afloat (although bailing or repairs may still be necessary). If the roll is higher than the seaworthiness rating, the ship suffers a Critical Hit.

Ports and anchorages give a seaworthiness bonus of +50%. Thus, vessels at anchor are in little or no danger from a normal storm.

Hits reduce seaworthiness by 5%. Failure causes a Critical Hit. Each crew member less than the minimum reduces Seaworthiness by 5%.

In most civilized areas, 5 percentage points of seaworthiness can be replaced or repaired at a cost of 2,000 gp in 1d6 days by a crew of ten trained workers. Poor (or cheap) characters can repair ships themselves. A crew of five individuals, with the correct materials, can repair five percentage points in a month at sea.

Such repairs are just as good as the expensive ones, provided that at least one member of the crew has Shipwright proficiency. A successful proficiency check must be made for such improvised repairs to succeed.

S&S: A storm (worse than a gale) imposes a 15% penalty to Seaworthiness checks. Make one Seaworthiness check each day a gale or storm lasts. A ship that fails a seaworthiness check sinks in d10 hours. A roll of 20 (96%-100%) means the ship has capsized; the ship sinks immediately and escape by boat is impossible. All crew must save vs. death or be trapped in the wreck and killed.

Grounding happens when a ship enters coastal waters in fog, storm, or game. A failed Seaworthiness check indicates the ship has run aground. Ships that ground on a rocky coastline or coral reef sink in d3 hours. A natural 20 (96%+) indicates the ship splinters and sinks immediately in the jagged rocks of the coastline. The shop can be repaired and refloated after d6 days of work, bit all future Seaworthiness checks suffer a 15% penalty until properly repaired.

References

⁶TSR 2002, Dungeons & Dragons, Vol. 3: The Underworld and Wilderness Adventures, 1974 (pp. 28-34). [turning, movement]
Dragon Magazine, Issue 6, “Sea Trade in D&D Campaigns,” April, 1977. [trade]
TSR 2011, Dungeon Masters Guide [1e], 1979 (pp. 53-54, 58, 69, 108-110). [fire, trade, wind]
TSR 1012, Expert Rulebook [BECMI], 1981 (pp. X63-X64).
TSR 9062, U1: Sinister Secret of Saltmarsh [1e], 1981. [rigging combat, fire]
TSR 2016, Monster Manual II, 1983. [sea encounters]
TSR 1015, A Guide to the World of Greyhawk, 1983. [core weather]
Runequest, Gamemaster Book (3rd Ed, Avalon Hill), 1984. [ships]
✖TSR 9159, M1: Into the Maelstrom [BECMI], 1985 (Inside cover, p. 4). [Sea Machine]
Dragon Magazine, Issue 107 [1e], “For Sail: One new NPC,” March 1986. [NPC Mariner, drowning, navigation]
⁵Dragon Magazine, Issue 116 [1e], “High Seas,” December 1986. [hull damage, history, ship stats, maintenance]
TSR 2019, Dungeoneer’s Survival Guide [1e], 1986 (pp. 43-48).
TSR 2020, Wilderness Survival Guide [1e], 1986 (pp. 44-46). [trade, wind]
TSR9164, OA1: Swords of the Daimyo, 1986. [mutiny]
⁴TSR 9187, I11: Needle [1e], 1987. [ship stats, weapons, fire, grappling, repair]
✖TSR 9215, Gaz 4: The Kingdom of Ierendi [BECMI], 1987 (pp. 29-30, 35-36). [hex-based minis system]
✖Dragon Magazine, Issue 124 [1e], “Sailors on the Sea of Air,” August 1987. [skyships, gliders, mounts]
✖Dragon Magazine, Issue 130 [1e], “The Oriental Sea,” February 1988. [ships of the Orient, monster damage]
TSR 9236, Gaz 9: The Minrothad Guilds [BECMI], 1988 (pp. 14-15, 36-41). [weather, trade, navigation]
TSR 1049, SpellJammer: Concordance of Arcane Space [2e], 1989 (pp. 55-70). [weapons]
TSR1037, Dawn of Emperors, 1989. [Detailed Sea Machine combat]
TSR 1071, Rules Cyclopedia, 1991 [BECMI] (pp. 70-74, 89-90, 100, 115). [swimming, movement, proficiencies, trade, directions]
TSR 9321, Ravenloft: Ship of Horror, 1991. [hull damage, fire, ballistae]
Dragon Magazine, Issue 165 [1e], “Anchors & Arrows,” January 1991. [Battlesystem]
TSR 9346, Pirates of the Fallen Stars [2e], 1992 (pp. 96-110). [SpellJammer, crew status, proficiencies, Best Combat, trade]
✖TSR 1094, Champions of Mystara Designer’s Manual, 1993. [skyships]
TSR 2010, Player’s Handbook [2e], 1995. [ships, tonnage, swimming]
TSR 2100, Dungeon Master Guide [2e], 1995. [weather, ships, seaworthiness, directions]
TSR 2170, Of Ships and the Sea [2e], 1997. [encounters, seaworthiness]
✖Dungeon Master’s Guide [3e], 2000 (p. 150). [ships, aquatic encounters]
http://blogofholding.com/?p=6415 [naval combat system]
http://theosrlibrary.blogspot.com/2016/09/osr-pirates-ships-sailing-and-naval.html
Freight Cost in the English East India trade 1601-1657. Niels Steensgaard. 1965. Scandinavian Economic History Review, 13:2, 143-162. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/03585522.1965.10414367
Stormwrack [3.5e], 2005.
https://www.naval-encyclopedia.com/goodies-naval-encyclopedia/antique-ships/
https://www.5esrd.com/gamemastering/ships-and-sailing/ [careful maneuvering rules]
https://www.realmshelps.net/stores/ships.shtml [maneuvering rules]
https://bruce-heard.blogspot.com/2017/11/ShipMVrates.html [sailing speeds]